Advertising Ethics: a Contextual Response Based on Classical Ethical Theory

announce Ethics A contextual Response Based on Classical honourable Theory Cornelius B. Pratt E. Lincoln crowd ABSTRACT. F. P. Bishop argues that the honorable standard for advert practiti aners nmst be utilitarian. Indeed, the utilitarian speculation of incorrupts in decision-making has tradition exclusivelyy been the preference of U. S. advertizingpractitioners. This article, therefore, argues that the U. S. publicize exertions de-emphasisof ontological righteousity is a reason for its continuing struggle with unfavorable public perceptions of its morality and credibility.The perceptions of tetrad scenarios on publici bring outthics and the analyses of the openended retorts of 174 members of the American announce Federation to those scenarios raise that advert practitioners need a unrelentinger adherence to deontological ethics than is mentiond in this study. Advertising, a traditionally high-profile management function since World War II, perpetuates a para dox. On the one hand, it is commonly touted by business and the academy as a major economic, societal and competitive hurl in post-world war economies. On the otherwise hand, it is, invariably, a bulls-eye for public wrath.Cowton (1992), Crisp (1987), and Litttechild (1982), for example, map evidence on consumer suspicion and antipathy toward and investor tincts about publicizing Cornelius B. Pratt is Associate Professor in the Department of Advertising, at geographical mile State University. His investigate has been published in much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)journals as the Journal of Media Planning, Journal of Business Ethics, Public trans swear out Review, Public RelationsJournal, Public Relations Quarterly, and Journalism Quarterly. E. LincolnJames is Associate Professorand Assistant Chairperson in tke Department of Advertising at Michigan State University.His work has appe ard in several scholarlyjournals, including the International Journal of Advertising, Journal of Advertising, Journal of carry Marketing, Journal of Media Planning, and Weberforschung und Praxis. ethics. Such antipathy and concerns contain a considerable history, having begun earlier in this century (Rogers, 1990). Since a national meeting of the Advertising Federation of America in March 1942, during which it created a 39-point statute of ethics for publicize during World War II (The New York Times, 1942), U. S. ublics and regulatory agencies and businesses worldwide be possessed of had a devour interest in ethics. In his widely acclaimed book,The Ethics of Advertising, Bishop (t949) argues that the ethicai standards of advertize should meet the practical requirements of society at a given stage of development (p. 88). Thus he suggests utilitarian, relativistic, non rigid, standards of ethics for the ad persistence. In Nevetts (1985) rebuttal to Bishops (1949) argument, he concluded The respectable case for advertising stands in need of rigorous re-examin ation (p. 04). The sedulousness is non oblivious to such a need existing programs are existence revamped and others are being developed to respond to honorable issues. Indeed, selfregulation for companionablely responsible canalize has become an attractive option of industry associations as advertising practitioners explanation that their activities conform to the principles of business conduct, adopt March 2, 1984, by the Board of Directors of the American Advertising Federation (,aF)(Chonko et al. , 1987).This article re-examines advertising ethics and argues that the perfunctory adherence of the advertising industry to deontotogical ethics bequeaths in a public perception of the industry as more(prenominal) susceptible, on the average, to respectable dilemmas than are well-nigh other management functions. So pervasive is this perception that Bergerson (1991-1992), chairman of the Self-Regulation Committee of the AAF, criticized industry efforts that were largely dir ected at treating the symptoms of the problem rather than Journal of Business Ethics 13 455468, 1994. 1994 KluwerAcademic Publishers.Printed in the Netherlands. 456 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James Greyser and Reeces (1971) update of the 1962 HBR study (Greyser, 1962) evinced that firearm business leaders had a continuing strong appraise for the economic role of advertising, advertising standards had slipped in some field of forces from standards account in 1962 and, advertising content, particularly its compass truthfulness, drew major criticisms. More recent research underscores a rising tide of indefinite praxiss and ethical problems among advertising practitioners (Carson et al. 1985 Hunt and Chonko, 1987 Nevett, 1985 Ossip, 1985 Rotzoll and Christians, 1980 Haefner, 1991).Consequently, Bergerson (19911992), for example, observes cynicism and indifference among the public toward advertising If the legislators, regulators and the public recognized advertisers to be more a ct to legal and high ethical standards, their level of trust wilt rise and their level of unwelcome worry volition fall (p. 22). the problem itself. E realone in the industry should be interested in being a part of the solution, Bergerson (1991-1992) wrote. The solution is to restore and go on advertisings credibility (p. 22). Purposes of study The purposes of this study are twofold. First, it examines AAF members perceptions of quartet scenarios on advertising ethics, and takes their reasons for perceiving such scenarios as they did. Because members of the AAF the largest association of advertising practitioners in the United States ope range in the trenches of the U. S. advertising industry, their perceptions could be typical of those in the industry.Based on their comments, the present study argues that deontological ethics be applied more readily to decision-making than is currently the case. Second, this study links practitioners perceptions to ethical theories. Such a l inkage is important because (ethical) theories are like windows onto the world of moral reasoning. They are bastardlyt to provide vantage points from which important ethical decisions can be considered (Lambeth, 1986, p. 25). The results of this study are, therefore, presented within the specific framework of classical possibleness deontology.Theoretical framework The classical ethical scheme ofdeontology Advertising practitioners continually explore ethical systems that will guide their decision-making figure outes. Lambeth (1986) observes that such a system of ethics can non ignore the classical approaches of deontology and teleology, or the variants of them (p. 28), and identifies the characteristics of such a system A system of ethics essential be flexible,but not so flexibleas to be a mere rationalization for the personal preferences of those who invoke it.In oblivious, a systemmust afford bite and give direction. Its precepts should offer continuity and stability, thoug h not necessarilyinvariant outcomes. Rationale for study The festering literature on the morality of business comes indicates that, aside from spectacularer semitivities to the environment and greater emphasis on a modus operandi of socially responsible actions, businesses, for the most part, still face ethical issues that were prevalent in the 1960s. The advertising profession, as business, is no less immune to the unsavory public perceptions of business ethics in general.Almost 30 years agone, while a Harvard Business Review (HBR ) survey of business leaders indicated great respect for and an improvement in the standards of advertising during 10 previous years, there was a greater mark on the part of the leaders to appreciate that a code of ethical pracnces was more desirable for advertising than it was for their own industries (Greyser, 1962). (p. 28) Kantian ethics, a time-honored classical ethical theory, provides the framework for discussing the implications of self-repo rted ethics for the advertising industry.Deontology is a duty-based, nonconsequentialist theory of ethics that asserts that certain, human actions are inherently right or ill-timed. (Eighteenth-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant (17241804) provided a good deal of the moral reasoning for pure deontology. ) The emphasis is on the doers actions. For example, it is always wrong to steal, lie or break a promise it is ones moral duty to Advertising and ClassicalEtflical Theory describe the truth and to keep ones promises regardless of the consequences.Universalizing an action is one criterion offered by Kant for determining the ethics of a decision or action. Does the decision, action, or advertising message treat people as ends or as actor toward an end? Kantian ethics requires that the doer respect the rights, status and dignity of the people with whom she or he interacts. Deontology has a unique petition to and major implications for the ethics of advertising practitioners. Consequently, the continuing search for clear- press dos and donts is a major focus of a number of advertising departments, agencies, and associations. unity worldwide approach to such a search is the adoption of an ethics code whose imperatives, with a deontological bent, require, for example, that we will not knowingly create advertisement that contains false or misleading contr oversy or exaggerations, visual or verbal (American Association, 1990). Such self-regulation by codes of ethics is, therefore, one far-r each(prenominal)ing measure the advertising industry has taken to address the everyday ethical questions that it confronts. Such a strategy contradicts Ekehind and Saurmans (1988) argument that such codes may not improve the professionalism of the practice.The rationale for such codes, argue advertising practitioners, is that the industry can find out right fiom wrong. Beyond that, such self-regulation has the advantage of addressing headon some of the unfavorable publ ic perceptions of advertising. The eight-item Advertising Principles of American Business, adopted March 2, 1984, by the American Advertising Federation Board of Directors, is replete with non-conditional, unequivocal shalls and shall nots, again, indicative of deontological requirements or proscriptions.Similarly, the Standards of Practice of the American Association of Advertising Agencies uses musts and will nots to disapprove unethical conduct among practitioners. These principles and standards satisfy both(prenominal) the principle of unity and Kants categorical imperative and reject the notion of stainal ethics (Briggs and Bernal, 1992). Thus, theoretically, the advertising practice embraces non-conditional ethical requirements. A number of professional associations that seek self-regulation of advertising in the United States have adopted a number of codes of conduct to 57 which practitioners are expected to adhere, emphasizing, in marrow squash, the importance of deontolo gical ethics. Research questions This study poses trine research questions a What are AAF members boilers suit perceptions of advertising ethics as oudined in four scenarios on ethics? Do such perceptions substitute significantly by the type of ethical issue confronted? a What are the implications of the classical theory of deontology for the self-reported ethics of the have practitioners?Method Questionnaire development A three-part questionnaire that had six statements on each of four emfly troublesome scenarios on moral issues was designed and pretested for clarity and face inclemency on 20 respondents randomty selected from the relevant population. Responses to six statements on eachscenario were anchored on a four-point scale 1 for in spades yes, 4 for in spades no. Respondents were requested comment briefly on their responses to the scenarios.The scenarios were developed by reviewing the standards of practice developed by three advertising associations the 55,000-memb er AAF, the largest association of advertising professionals whose code of ethics was established in 1965 the American Association of Advertising Agencies, whose code was first adopted in 1924 and the National Advertising region/ National Advertising Review Board, whose ethics code was created in 1971. The reviews identified issues of greatest ethical concern to the advertising industry.Additionally, the research literature on ethics in marketing and advertising was also examined for insights on formulating the scenarios. Hunt and Chonko (1987), for example, in extending an earlier study by Rotzoll and Christians (1980), identified six 458 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James Data compendium major ethical problems from the responses of 269 advertising decision makers to an open-ended question Would you please briefly describe the aspect of advertising that poses the most difficult ethical or moral problem confronting you in your daily work? (p. 19).Also, woodwind et al. (1988) used 16 v ignettes to examine the ethics of business students and business professionals. Similarly, Bellizzi and Hite (1989), DeConinck and Good (1989), Dubinsky et al. (1991), Fraedrich and Ferrell (1992), and Mason et al. (1990) used scenarios, vignettes and statements to quantify respondents perceptions of ethics. Such hypothetical, ethics-related scenarios provide insights into business ethics, and have been found useful in replicating real-world situations for the purpose of evaluating moral conduct (DeConinck and Good, 1989 Dubinsky et al. 1991 Madden, 1989 Hegarty and Sims, 1979). A single-wave mail survey was used to collect data from the practitioner sample from the fall of 1991 by doer of the winter of 1992. To encourage candid practitioner responses and to obtain an optimal response rate, a hand-typed, individually communicate covering letter, in which respondents anonymity was assured, accompanied each questionnaire. A business-reply envelope was in each bandage of mail. Res pondents were requested not to write any identifying information on the questionnaire. Results emailprotectedle on respondents SamplingA systematic random sample procedure was used to select names of AAF clubs and federations from the 1991 roster of the AAF. Following the receipt of notification that club lodge in the survey had been approved, we mailed 2,010 copies of the questionnaire to executive directors or secretaries of clubs. Copies were distributed during general meetings of the clubs. four hundred eighty-one of the 2,010 copies were returned in a single-wave mailing, yielding a 23. 9% response rate. Only 460 (22. 9%)were usable. This low response rate is consistent with those of similar studies (Akaah, 1990 Chonko et aI. 1987 Fritzsche and Becket, 1984 Greyser and Reece, 1971 Hunt et al. , 1984 Myers et al. , 1980 Randall and Gibson, 1990), which reported response rates amongst 17% and 31%. One hundred seventy-four respondents provided reasons for their responses to al l four scenarios, for an item-response rate of 37. 8%. Because one purpose of this study is to analyze respondents reasons for their philosophical perceptions, the analyses of responses focus on those respondents who provided such comments. Table I presents a seven-item profile on the 174 respondents. The sexuality split was almost equal.About 4% of the respondents were 25 years or younger, 29% were between 26 and 34 years old and 34% between 35 and 43 years old. Eight percent and 5. 7% were in the 53-years-to-61-years and the 62years-or-older categories, respectively. Respondents represented each of 25 states in the United States. However, four states atomic number 20, Colorado, Illinois, Michigan each had 10 or more open-ended responses. California, with 44 returns, had the most responses. More than one-half of the respondents had between one and 10 years of full-6me advertising experience, 26% between 11 and 20 years experience, and 11% between 21 and 30 years experience.Abo ut 1%had more than 40 years experience. With regard to respondents institutional affiliations, about 44% worked in an advertising deputation or department, 17% in companies or corporations, 3. 4% in nonprofit organizations, and 32% in other organizations. About 35% of the respondents indicated that they were in top-management puts, for example, as owners, presidents, executive vice presidents, vice presidents, and directors. Twenty-six percent were categorised in upper-middle management positions division heads, supervisors, managers.About 40% were categorized in lower-middle management positions, for example, as account executives, while 3%were categorized as non-management personnel. Advertising and Classical EtkicaI Theory plug-in I A demographic profile on respondents (N = 174), in percentages Gender Female Male States with 10 or more responses California Colorado Illinois Michigan 25. 3 6. 9 5. 7 10. 9 50. 6% 49. 4 459 While 24% of the respondents did not supervise any empl oyees, a mass held supervisory positions. About 63% supervised between one and 10 eraployees, 7% between l l and 20, and about 3% more than 21 employees.Respondents evaluation of and conmaents o n scenarios Scenario no h (Giving inducts to a potential invitee) This scenario focused on a female ad person who gave gifts to a potential guest with the intent of receiving assistance from the client in obtaining the latters account. Slightly more than one-half of the respondents state that the ad person was wrong, t7% reported that she should be blast, 40% would do unspoiled what she did, while 56% verbalize that most ad execs would do as she did. About 83% verbalise their firms should address the situation formally in a policy.In this scenario, gift-giving perse was not an issue however, the intent of that practice is important because one study (Hire and Beltizzi, 1987) indicated that gifts tend to obligate a client to a firm. Some respondents in the present study considered it a bribe. One, for example, wrote Any fellowship I managed had a written policy on such matters. Mary would have been reprimanded orally and in writing. A copy would be placed in personnel file. This would contain a warning. Next time, fired. Another If it was an overt bribe it was wrong. If it was really a gift then no problem. A respondent who was blunt about the wrongness of the conduct defended its widespread occurrence in the industry What Mary did was wrong, but it is common practice in a more deadly way. Perhaps reflecting the percentage of respondents who said that most ad executives would do what the ad person did, a number of respondents pointed out that the situation happens quite frequently, that it is common practice, that gifts is a highly ambiguous term, that it is standard in the industry, that most account executives routinely give away whatever they can to get business, and that romancing the client is part of business. Therefore, they think that nor much is wr ong with it. In fact, most argued that it depended on the nature of the gift. Age 25 or younger 2634 3543 4452 5361 62 or older Years in full-time advertising 0 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 More than 40 years work at Setting Advertising way/department Public relations business office/department zero(prenominal)-profit organization keep company/corporation Other Management position Top management Upper-middle management Lower-middle management Number of employeessupervised 0 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 5t or higher 24. 1 62. 7 6. 9 2. 9 1. 7 1. 1 0. 6 34. 5 25. 8 39. 7 43. 7% 3. 4 3. 4 17. 2 32. 2 6. 52. 3 25. 9 10. 9 2. 9 1. 1 4. 0 29. 3 33. 9 19. 0 8. 0 5. 7 460 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James TABLE lI Responses to statements on ethics scenarios % yesa Mean u SD Statements on Scenario no. 1 (Giving gifts to a potential client) 1. What Mary- did was wrong. 2. Mary should be fired. 3. I would do in effect(p) what Mary did. 4. some ad execs would do just what Mary did. 5. My firm/dept, has a policy, either written or oral, that addresses this situation or practice. 6. Regardless of mr response to nary(prenominal) 5, it is a good idea for my firm/dept, to have a policy, either written or oral, that addresses the situation or practice.Statements on Scenario none 2 (Lying about an update on an account) 1. What basin did was wrong. 2. thaumaturgy should be fired. 3. I would do just what John did. 4. Most ad execs would do just what John did. 5. My firm/dept, has a policy-, either written or oral, that addresses this situation or practice. 6. Regardless of my response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my finrddept, to have a policy, either written or oral, that addresses the situation or practice. Statements on Scenario No. 3 (Seeking confidential information) 1. What Pete did was wrong. 2. Pete should be fired. 3. I would dojffst what Pete did. . Most ad execs would do just what Pete did. 5. My firm/dept, has a policy, either written or oral, that addresses this si tuation or practice. 6. Regardless of my response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my firm/dept, to have a policy, either written or oral, that addresses the situation or practice. 63 18 40 47 22 2. 16 3. 35 2. 01 2. 43 3. 28 1. 14 0. 852 0. 961 0. 856 0. 917 59 18 57 78 24 2. 29 3. 43 2. 48 3. 00 3. 23 1. 05 55 17 40 56 31 2. 36 3. 40 2. 01 2. 62 2. 99 1. 18 0. 811 0. 982 0. 939 1. 15 83 1. 68 0. 918 0. 807 1. 03 0. 825 1,05 72 2. 04 1. 05 67 2. 12 1. 01Advertising and Classical respectable Theoly Table)8 (Continued) %yes Statements on Scenario No. 4 (Using outdated data) Mean b 46 t SD What Sally did was wrong. Sallyshould be fired. I would do just what Sally did. Most ad execs would dojust what Sally did. My firm/dept, has a policy, either written or oral, that addresses this situation or practice. 6. Regardless of my response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my firm/dept, to have a policy, either writtm. or oral, that addresses the situation or practice. I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 82 46 11 36 41 t . 62 2. 68 1. 51 2. 26 2. 84 0. 993 1. 07 0. 742 0. 9 t0 1. 12 81 1. 77 0. 39 a Percent responding definitely yes or maybe yes. b On a four-point scale, with 1 = definitely yes and 4 = definitely no. A lower mean score indicates a stronger proportionateness with a statement. Another, perhaps thinking situationally, asked Is it a pen, a ticket to a concert, or an automobile? A president of an ad agency said Often, in this business, I encounter prospective clients that have been wined and dined by their previous agency. Some expert preferential treatment. The prospects that find this offensive and rely mostly on our agencys ethics, expertness and integrity are those we desire.This philosophy has lost us business, slowed our growth . . . . Business ethics unfortunately in the ad business is perceived next to snake oil salesmen was wrong substantiated their positions with the following reasons There definitely are times when one must prioritize his/her workload . . . One sh ould not lie to the client but instead talk openly about a schedule of completion and possibly see ifa delay would be acceptable. D,- Schedules for each projectclient are developed on acclamation of estimates. each(prenominal) work is to be done per that schedule, regardless of dollars guided. A company should try to meet a ctienCs dead margins no matter the size o f the account. O n the other hand, some of those who felt aught wrong had occurred said john did attest the t r u t h . . . For John to tell the whole truth is simply suicidal. Agencies are always juggling workloads. m,- What John said was not a definite lie. As long as you do not directly tie about a scenario, dont worry. m,- John did what most people would do, then work a little harder to get the other work OUt. &enario No. 2 (Lying about an update on an account)This scenario was on the failure o f an ad agency staffer to tell a client the truth about the status o f the clients account, which had been effectu ate aside temporarily in preference for a newer, higher-hilling account. Fifty-nine percent said that the ad agency staffer was wrong, 18% said that he should be fired, 57% reported that they would do just what he did, while 78% said that most ad execs would do what the staff did. About 72% said their agencies should address the situation in a policy. Some of those who argued that the agency staff I see no reason to forfeit future business and, 462 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James herefore, would use whatever means necessary to maintain the relationship. did. Eighty-one percent said that their agencies should address situation in a policy. Respondents were clearly angered by the ad executives action. A respondent said This conduct is indefensible. The client paid for both the campaign and the research (I assume) and is entitled to their results. There should be truth in advertising and in all of lifes encounters, business or personal. Another Sally practiced deception in not using tho se current poll results. The client is bound to find out what sort of results the embodied image has, eventually. Yet another Bad head to cover up facts. Corrective measures to improve numbers in future campaigns should be provided to client. Some arguments do in behalf of the ad executive They the numbers can be used as indicators, but not absolutes. How numerous people do you know that have participated in TV Nielsen rating surveys and how many programs have the networks cut or kept that you dis scoff with? What Sally did was not necessarily wrong or right, given the question. perhaps the campaign required more impact, time, etc. Too many variables in this situation to judge ethics. number are arbitrary and research is imperfect.One set of bad numbers is, therefore, inconclusive. &enario No. 3 (Seeking confidential information) During a social meeting, one ad account executive craftily encouraged another obviously inebriated ad executive who handled the account for a com peting brand to divulge confidential business information. Sixty-three percent said that the ad account executive was wrong. Eighteen percent said that he should be fired, and 40% that they would do just what he did, while 47% said that most ad execs would do what the executive did. 67 percent said the ad agency should address the situation through policy-making.Among all four scenarios, scenario No. 3 had the instant-highest disapproval rate among respondents. One respondent made a blunt, succinct comment A definite breach of professional ethics. Another This is unacceptable as well as unethical behavior. at once the account exec had identified himself, Pete should have identified himself as well. Pete should be reprimanded for his actions, maybe even fired if it appears as if this very(prenominal) scenario would continue in the future. Another It was wrong not to identify himself. Yet another Petes pickings advantage of his counterpart was opportunistic and immoral. A respo ndent who saw nothing devious here argued It is a very competitive market. Taking advantage of the competitions weakness or stupidity is a must. Another argument bodied espionage is no more or less right or wrong than is political espionage. Comparison of means Scenario No. 4 (Using outdated data) In an agencys report to a client, a female ad executive used outdated data that were favorable to both her ad agency and client, while ignoring new, unfavorable information. lxxxii percent the highest among all scenarios for statement No. said that the female ad executive was wrong, 46% said that she should be fired, 11% that they would do just what she did, while 36% said that most ad execs would do what she Two analytical procedures were used to compute and compare responses to all four scenarios. First, the percentage response to each statement was computed for comparison of the directions of response patterns. Second, item-by-item statistical differences between 36 possible pai rs of responses across all four scenarios were determined. Scheffts (1953) multiplecomparisons were used to determine such differences (Table III).Twenty- five-spot of those 36 pairs and four of the six variable pairs of grand means were significantly different (p lt 0. 05, at least) from each other, indicating respondents differentiation of their evaluation of the scenarios. Thus, this result indicates Advertising and Classical Ethical Theory TABLE III Comparison of means, grand means (and standard deviations) for four scenarios on advertising ethics Scenario One 2. 3 (1. 18) 3. emailprotected (0. 811) 2. 0P (0. 982) 2. 62 (0. 939) 2. 99 Scenario Two 2. 29 (1. 05) 3. 4Y (0. 807) 2. 48b (1. 03) 3. 00b (0. 825) 3. 23b Scenario Three 2. 1 (1. 14) 3. 35 (0. 852) 2. 0P (0. 61) 2. 43 (0. 856) 3. 28b 463 Statement 1. What X did was wrong. 2. X should be fired. 3. I would do just what X did. 4. Most ad execs would do just what X did. 5. My firm/dept, has a policy, either written or oral, o n situation or practice. 6. Regardless of my response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my firm/dept, to have a policy, either written or oral, on situation or practice. Grand Mean Scenario Four 1. 62b (0. 993) 2. 68b (1. 07) 1. 5V (0. 742) 2. 26d (0. 910) 2. 84 (t. I 5) (1. 05) (0. 9 7) (1. 12) 1. 68 (0. 918) 2,63 (0. 406) 2. 04b (1. 05) 2. 58,b (0. 362) 2. 12b (1. 01) 2. 74c (0. 378) 1. 77 (0. 39) 2. 52b (0. 401) ,b. Means with different superscripts on the same row are significantly different, by ScheffSs repeated-measures design. Note Means are on a four-point scale, with 1 for definitely yes and 4 for definitely no. Statements 3 and 4 were reverse-coded as t for definitely no and 4 for definitely yes. A lower mean score, therefore, indicated higher self-reported ethical standards. that the sample practidoners perceptions of ethics vary significantly by the type o f ethical issue confronted, suggesting perceived differences in the transport of the application of deontology to the scenarios.Fritzsche (1988) and Fritzsche and Becker (1984) reported similar differences across vignettes, and concluded that marketing managers practiced situational ethics. For three of the four scenarios, respondents tended to agree with the statement that the advertising staff involved in the conduct identified in each of the scenarios took the wrong action. However, they tended not to agree that the staff should be fired. It was only in scenario No. 4 (using outdated data) that members tended to perceive the conduct as wrong even so, the mean response to the statement that the staff should be fired was 2. 8, which was significantly different (p < 0. 001) from re- spondents positions on the firing of the three other practitioners in the other three scenarios. Contextual response An overall evaluation of the respondents evaluation of the wrongness or rightness of a conduct the essence of Kantian ethics indicates that the sample AAF members leave little doubt about their po sitions on the scenarios outlined in the questionnaire. However, when the evaluations of the statements, taken together, are considered within the context o f classical ethical theory, the members ethics leaves much to be desired.Four questionnaire statements (items 1, 2, 3 and 6 of Tables II and III) were used as direct measures of deontology was wrong, should be fired, I would 464 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James do, and regardless of my response. It must be noted here that, even though deontology does not address explicitly the severity of the punishment for an ethical infraction, the theory is not neutral on punishment. Justice is one of the moral values that deontology considers even though not always explicitly. In mixed-rule and mixed-act deontology, the consequences of ones actions are considered.In essence, there is a implicit in(p) role for consequences. This was why Kant, admittedly vague in some areas, invented moral rules in the first place. Responses to the four deontolo gy-related statements provide four indications of the extent of practitioners adherence to Kantian ethics. First, the respective percentages (28. 7%, 28%, 40% and 65%) of respondents who reported that the actions of the practitioners cited in the four scenarios were definitely wrong indicate that fewer than one-half applied deontological theory to three of the four scenarios.Second, that the practitioner should be fired, the ultimate test of ethics (Singer, 1992), had much lower, definite approval rates 1. 7%, 1. 1%, 3. 4%, and 16. 1%. Third, the response percentages for item 3 (I would do just ) in scenarios one, two, and three indicate that a sizable number of respondents would engage in the questionable behavior outlined in the scenarios. For scenario four, however, 11% said that they would definitely or maybe engage in a behavior that 82% of them reported as wrong.Finally, on item 6, a clear majority indicated an interest in organizational response to the issue raised in each sc enario. The response percentages for statements 1, 2, and 3, therefore, indicate that practitioners evaluations are clearly at odds with tile tenets of deontology and are perhaps more in line with utilitarian and relativistic theories. A further indication of the sample practitioners adherence to deontology is provided by those who responded definitely yes or maybe yes to all four measures of deontology in all four scenarios.The results 10% 10%, 16%, 32% for scenarios 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Such low percentages suggest that a majority of members wavered in applying deontology to the ethical dilemmas with which they were confronted. Bishop (1949) argues that truthtelling (addressed in scenarios 2 and 4) in advertising is impossible and the attempt to attain it would reduce advertising to complete ineffectiveness and prevent it from fulfilling its let and necessary function (to. 88).Yet, the first of AAFs eight-principle code of ethics, albeit stated in general terms, focuses on truthtelting Advertising shall tell the truth, and shall reveal significant facts, the omission of which would mislead the public (American Advertising Federation, 1984). While AAF members report that their companies adhere to AAF principles, they report that other ad agencies tend to adhere less strictly to those principles (Chonko et al. , 1987). Adherence to the truth principle is not only evident among AAF members but it has the largest my versus other company difference (t 23. 2, p < 0. 01 Chonko et al. , 1987). A number of U. S. corporate executives now realize that if ethical transgressions are not sanctioned by dismissals, they could encourage all kinds of mirthful dealings and foster the perception that the organization is not really committed to ethics (Singer, 1992). It is plausible that a mix of utilitarian, JudeoChristian, veil-of-ignorance, and grand-mean ethics simultaneously guided the sample practitioners evaluation of the ethical scenarios used in this stud ),. However, the investigation of the application of various ethical theories to decision-making was not a purpose of this study.Empirical studies on ethics (e. g. , Ferrelt and Weaver, 1978 Fritzsche, 1988 Fritzsche and Becker, 1983 Krugman and Ferrell, 1981 Pratt, 1991 Pratt and McLaughlin, 1989) increasingly indicate that ethics among business people is frequently not perceived in absolutist terms, but in relative shades of right and wrong. Fritzsche (1991, 1988) and Jones (1991), for example, report that situational ethics is the overwhelming preference of U. S. managers. Advertising codes of ethics are usually written in precise deontological terms, for example, must recognize, will not, shall tell the truth, shall refrain from. Yet, AAF members do not seem to abide by deontology even though an enforced, effective code should provide the profession with a degree of stability and consistency in the ethical decision-making of its members (Beets, 1991, p. 69). It is plausible that the patterns of responses in this present study suggest adherence to utilitarian ethics, which is preferred by advertising agency personnel Advertising and Classical Ethical Theory (Rotzotl and Christians, 1980 Christians et al. , 199 I). On the other hand, utilitarian ethics seeks to maximize the good for all concerned.However, the limitation of this ethical theory is inherent in how the good is determined. Beyond that, the interests of the minority tend to be given short shrift. What, therefore, are the chances that advertising-agency actions will result in the greatest happiness for the greatest number? Also, Nevett (1985) disagrees with Bishops (1949) suggestion that the ethical standards of advertising be utilitarian because such an approach cannot provide advertising people today with steerage on suitable ethical standards for their profession (e. 04). Rawls (1971) criticizes utilitarianism, noting that it does not take seriously the differences among people rather, it views as morally just that which has the sum of satisfactions (or total utility) for the community. As an alternative to utilitarian thought, Rawls (1971) suggests a new moral theory that will give adequate account to the primacy of justice, understood as the protection of the equal rights of all individuals, over the social good (Schaefer, 1979, p. 22).To accomplish equal justice in society, therefore, everyone should assume a hypothetical fender position behind a veil of ignorance which requires that, in evaluating situations, people step from their everyday, status-based traditional roles into an egalitarian position behind a veil. The goal is to develop a conception of justice or of the good from a disinterested, equal perspective. Would a recommendation that practitioners who compromise the ethical standards identified in the scenarios be fired be an illustration of such justice?And would such firing be in an organizations or in a societys best interest? Finally, it is plausible that Judeo-Christian morality an altruistic, religion-based tradition is also reflected in respondents evaluations of the dilemmas in the ethical scenarios. 465 perceived as definitely having such policies for each of the four scenarios (and those who definitely think that having such policies is a good idea) are, respectively, 17. 8 (56. 3), 11. 5 (38. 5), 4. 6 (33. 3) and 15. s (50 0).The large differences between having such policies and thinking that having such policies is a good idea lends credence to the continuing public and practitioner concern over advertising ethics. For advertising agencies, such policies could result in two possibilities (1) they may encourage agencies to also apply deontology to ethical issues, and (2) they may help agencies initiate an eclectic approach to ethical decision-making that is, to apply ethical principles that may involve bringing all five commonly used classical theories to bear simultaneously on the decision-making process.These five theories, which are not mutually exclusive, fall into one of two broad categories deontology or teleology. They are (1) Aristotles golden mean (moral virtue is appropriate location between two extremes) (2) the theoretical framework for this present study, Kants categorical imperative (act on that maxim which you will to become a universal jurisprudence) (3) Mills principle of utility (seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number) (4) Rawlss (1971) veil of ignorance (justice emerges when negotiating without social differentiations) and (5) Judeo-Christian persons as ends (love they neighbor as yourself).Aristotles theory of the golden mean, a virtuebased ethics, strikes a moral balance between two extremes, one indicating excess, the other deficiency. The mean, in this context, is not a statistical mean but a willingness on the part of the decision maker to exercise moderation or self-restraint a virtue. Such a mean rdates to the individuals particular situation, her or hi s stay. is, strengths and weaknesses (Chiistians et aI. , 1991). Utilitarian ethics, a form of teleological ethics, was enunciated by John Smart Mill as that which seeks the greatest happiness for the greatest number. To assess the greatest good, a person or organization performs a cost-benefit analysis of an action or decision. If the latter would result in the good of the majority, that is, if its benefits for the greatest number outweigh its costs, then the act is ethically right. Rawlss (197 t) veil of ignorance, a nonconsequen- Conclusion The results presented in this study indicate a strong (perceived) reluctance on the part of the ad agencies to institute policies, either written or oral, that would proscribe unethical conduct. The percentages of respondents whose firms or departments are 466C. B. Pratt and E. L. James tialist theory of justice, governs the assignment of rights and duties and regulates the distribution of social and economic advantages. People, Rawts (197I) a rgued, have an equal right to the most extensive primary liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others (Rawls, 1971, p. 60). Finally, Judeo-Christian morality is an altruistic tradition that is being popularized in the West as the more dramauc term agape unselfish, otherregarding care and other-directed love, distinct from friendship, charity, benevolence, and other weaker notions (Christians et al. 1991, p. 20). The commentary of the results of this present study within the context of Kantian ethics suggests that deontology is clearly not the preference of the sample practitioners. The de-emphasis of deontological ethics among practitioners is likely to engender a laissez faire approach to ethical issues. Dubinsky et al. (1991) suggest a reason for this phenomenon from an overall business perspective Many of the situations business people confront are in a gray area where the delineation between the right versus the wrong action is not clear (p. 52). On the other hand, st rict deontologicaI ethics could encourage advertising practitioners to understand the precise boundaries of ethical and unethical conduct, as has been found among salespeople (Michaels et at. , 1988). It has been reported that managers who apply deontological ethics under uncertain conditions are least likely to change their decisions even when they perceive the risk of their decisions those who apply utilitarian ethics are more likely to change their decisions to satisfy monetary and/or self-esteem goals (Fraedrich and Ferrell, 1992).And herein lies a crucial value of deontological ethics to advertising more likely, it will encourage advertisers to adhere to the precepts of ethics, setting aside personal financial and social rewards for the public good. At least 67% of the respondents in the present study suggested that their organizations establish policies on questionable conduct (item 6). Why did such a majority suggest such boundaries on behavior? Why would they prefer that fo rmal company policies restrict questionable behaviors?It is plausible that the sample practitioners place much value on formal policies because of the perceived importance of affirmation on what they consider ethical or unethical. Further, such a formal process may indicate more than a perfunctory commitment of their organizations to ethics. This possibility suggests two key questions on the implications of the results of the present study for policy-making (1) Where lies the responsibility for shaping advertising agency ethics? (2) And what relevant does deontology have for the training of advertising staffs?In a speech given two dozen years ago by Bill Marsteller, founder of the advertising agency, Marsteller Inc. (a forerunner of Burson-Marsteller, the worlds third-largest public relations agency), he said It is not enough for the advertising student to simply attain general standards of morality and taste it is important to be subjected to the tump over considerations of advert ising morality and taste (Marsteller, 1972, p. 241). Marsteller sees education in advertising ethics as important as that for the production of creative, charming advertising.Just as the effectiveness of training sessions has been called into question (Feldman and Thompson, 1990 Levin, 1989), their impact has also been demonstrated (e. g. , Feldman and Thompson, 1990 Hanson, 1987 Harris and Guffey, 1991). On balance, however, it behooves ad clubs and various advertising associations to establish programs that, at the minimum, sensitize practitioners to some of the social and professional sequelae of their ethics-related decisions. The results of this moderate study justify the adoption of such measures.Caveats Two limitations of this stud), should be outlined. The first is the old issue of self-reported ethics. evening though measures were taken to discourage the use of socially desirable responses, that possibility cannot be ignored because perceptual distoruon is higher when th e dependent variable is as highly sensitive as the subject of ethics (Hunt et al. , 1989 Randall and Fernandes, 1991). The second is the representativeness of the sample, which was drawn from 25 states, for the 50,000member AAF.Because the sample was not randomly selected, it is important that this present study be replicated on a larger, more geographically diverse sample to determine the extent to which its results are consistent with those of such a nationwide study. Advertising and Classical Ethical Theory