A Dream within a Dream: A Critical Analysis Essay

A Dream within a Dream, by Edgar Allen Poe, is a poem with its central themes being sorrow, loss, confusion and frustration. The poem is divided into two stanzas, each with a different setting but both closely interconnected. It begins with the narrator kissing his lover upon their â€Å"parting† (line 2). He ponders whether everything in life is nothing but â€Å"a dream within a dream† (line 11). The second stanza depicts the narrator standing on a sea-shore while he weeps. He struggles to hold the â€Å"grains of golden sand† (line 15) within his palm, but alas, is unable to. The tighter he tries to grasp, the more they slip away. The poet, through this work of his, has portrayed his most profound feelings and thoughts. â€Å"The surf-tormented shore† (line 13) symbolizes the poet’s fraught state of mind. His mind is the shore that is â€Å"tormented† with many thoughts (surf). The grains of sand can be taken to represent the people and things that he loves in life. He communicates his sense of anguish at not being able to hold on to them, and at the thought that ultimately the â€Å"pitiless wave† (perhaps death) will carry them away. The poet twice states that he is weeping and he cries out to God. This further highlights his agonized mental and emotional state. The lines â€Å"all that we see or seem Is but a dream within a dream† are repeated twice; once as a question and the second time as a statement, possibly with a sense of hope that all the losses suffered by him are nothing but mere dreams from which he will wake. The language and strong use of symbolism by the poet endow the poem with deeper meaning. The reader can easily relate to it because each one of us undergoes this sense of agony at the loss of a loved one. We might feel that things are slipping away from our hands but we remain helpless. The poet has captured this aspect of human existence very beautifully. Although there are portions of the poem that are vague as one cannot be sure what the poet is trying to convey, the overall effect of the poem on the reader is captivating. ? Works Cited Poe, Edgar A. â€Å"A Dream within a Dream†. Poetry X. 29 Nov 2004. 14 July 2010 <

Should the Right to Assisted Suicide be Legal?

Persuasive Essay Should terminally ill patients have the right to doctor-assisted seclude? The right to assisted suicide Is an Important topic that concerns people all around the e united States. Debates go back and forth on whether or not a dying patient should continue to suffer or die to relieve all that pain. I think assisted seclude should be legal, because what If the person wants it, what if it makes them shriek from the pain.It's their body and they c loud do whatever they want to it and we can't control that. Terminal patients should be given the right to assisted suicide in order to end their suffering and pain, give them an option to De termini their own life and what they want to do with it, and it reduces financial problems of h capital care on their families. First off terminally ill patients have the fight to doctor assisted suicide because it can end their suffering and pain.Imagine being in a hospital for a long time, getting treatments, take inning medicine, and Jus t feeling like crap. The doctor says you don't have much time to live, wouldn't you Just want to end all the pain quicker? This spring, arrear old, Brittany Maynard learned that she had terminal brain cancer. After careful assessment of her prognosis s and ended life choices, she and her family reluctantly decided to move from their San Francisco Bay Area home to Oregon, that authorize death with dignity.

Out of the Dust Essay

In the novel, Out of the dust, Billie Joe experiences conflict with herself, her environment, and others. Additionally, she has great conflicts with her dad. They secretly blame each other wanting the other to know they accidently killed the mom. Billie Joe also has to deal with the dust. The dust kills families and destroys homes. Futhermore, she also has a conflict with herself. She knows she accidently killed her mom, but despite tragedies and conflicts Billie Joe knows that her family loves her and they forgive her by coming together to help each other live in peace. Billie Joe works against herself by blaming and limiting herself. For example, she stops trying to heal her hands. She has an amazing talent of playing the piano, but since she suffered burns on her hands, she limits herself by not practicing. Without her mother’s support, Billie Joe can barely go on in life without thinking of her mother’s death. Billie Joe still has her dad but both stay stuck in the horrible past. She and her dad both move on knowing they love each other and that they can help one another get through the horrible times. Billie Joe encounters nature in a horrible way. He dust causes huge problems for the people living in Oklahoma and all the dust bowl states. The dust comes in as thick clouds, burying houses and sickening families. Billie Joe cannot wait to leave her town along with other families wanting to escape from the dust and drought. She makes a decision to leave Oklahoma on a train. After Billie Joe arrives in California she realizes that the dust defines her and she can’t leave her dad at home to live by himself. In the novel, Out of the Dust, Billie Joe finds herself battling for a relationship with her father. Billie Joe and her father both know they have a part in the mother’s death. They both secretly blame each other wanting the other to have the guilt instead. In the end, Billie Joe and her father come together knowing the both love each other and they can’t afford to lose each other. In the end, Billie Joe still experiences conflicts with herself, her environment, and others. As she goes on in the book, she finds that if she comes together with her father they can help each other move on from the tragedy. As the dust comes into her town, Billie Joe struggles to live her everyday life. She then runs away but decides that the dust defines her and she must go back. Billie Joe then has to deal with not blaming herself about her mother’s death. Billie Joe figures out that if she ultimately accepts her family, she can defeat any battle thrown her way.

Policy implementation.The internal Revenue Service Essay

Policy implementation.The internal Revenue Service - Essay Example Since it holds constitutional responsibility for the provision of taxation process to its citizens, the state plays more than just the intermediary role traditionally studied in implementing federal taxation policy. The implementation of any federal policy requires that the state consider the interests of bureaucrats, politicians, and special interest groups at the federal, state, and local level whose input and posturing provides complexity to the process as they respond to federal taxation policy implementation process. In this connection, the Internal Revenue Service is at the best position to implement tax credits policy in Rhode Island owing to the fact that it is very much familiar with the operations of the tax system of the entire nation. Below is a brief explanation of how the agency carries out its operations. The internal Revenue Service The implementation of the tax policy in Rhode Island is best implemented by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) which is responsible for the collection of taxes as well as implementation and enforcement of the Internal Revenue Code which is the domestic part of the statutory tax law that operates in the entire United States. The code is organized into topics, subtitles and sections which cover all forms of taxes ranging from income taxes, payroll taxes, estate taxes, excise taxes to payroll taxes. It also bears the procedures and administration forming to be implemented by the Internal Revenue Service. The IRS usually publishes tax forms which it offers to taxpayers so that they can select and use them to calculate and report their federal tax obligations.

Group report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Group report - Essay Example Working together on a group project however, one learns that the success of the project is not due to the abilities of one man or one woman and that everyone must work together in tandem in order to ensure the smooth and successful operation of the project. This is new for many of us and we must resist our individualistic urges and sacrifice or self-centered individualism for the betterment of the group. While working on a group project, communitarianism reigns supreme and we must work together in harmony. Seeking to address the ways in which group work can be successful, this brief research paper will explore in holistic fashion the ways in which groups work best together. Accordingly, we turn to our ever important research question which asks, â€Å"Despite all the hype and myths about the nature of groups and teams, is it simply a question of ensuring the right mix of skills and that all the members of the group co-operate with each other. Or is this an over-simplification?† The preceding question will guide our analysis as we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of group dynamics and how groups work best together. Our assessment will aim to answer the research question above and provide a thorough analysis about our experiences with group work. Working together on a group assignment is not always easy and it takes negotiation and a willingness to compromise in order to be successful. As Americans we guard our individualism and sometimes do not work well with others. What we understood very early on is that organizational is key to any group assignment and that while it is important to ensure that the right mix of skills are present within the group it is also imperative that we are organized and plan appropriately in order to ensure that the work progress is smooth, streamlined and on target. We do not know if there is a philosophy of sorts for group projects but we found early on that

The catcher in the rye Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The catcher in the rye - Research Paper Example After an emotive nosedive emphasized by Pencey Prep expulsion, Caulfield checks the Edmont Hotel and meanders the vicinities of Manhattan for 3 days. However, as Caulfield’s adventure progresses, he gradually begins bridging the gap between childhood innocence and the adulthood onset. The second last chapter of the novel follows Caulfield as a few significant occasions add to his advantage of personal closure concerning the loss of virtuousness between childhood and adulthood, a universal theme of the book. Caulfield’s walk on 5th Avenue at the beginning of the chapter signifies his many struggles related to his journey to adulthood throughout the book (Gohn 44). Caulfield literally aims at "catching" the children as they fall into adulthood. Caulfield, like any other teenager, stays scared of growing up. He understands that no one stands at the bottom of this metaphorical face with open arms to hold him as he tumbles, and that frightens him more than anything in his li fe. This fear of the cliff edge pushes Caulfield to walk on the streak between adulthood and childhood without committing to either flank, paralleling his sprints from one block to another (Sanford Pinsker 112). Additionally, Holden adheres to one of his only thoughts that he will ever find consoling for strength - his brother’s, (Allie) memory. As he runs, he "make[s] believes that he talks to his brother" (Salinger 257), and appreciates him when he crosses by the street securely. In a logic, Caulfield views Allie as his catcher on the bottom end of the cliff. He holds Allie's catcher's hand with him at every time, and it is apparent that Allie's death affected and infected him in an irreversible way that made it extremely hard for him to progress in his life. While he reflects to the past, Caulfield’s course of growing up turns out to be stunted. He calls out for Allie's memory to protect him from harms not only as he strolls along the streets in New York but when he rambles through his life. Without guides and uncertain, Caulfield never takes his time to cement precisely what he wants in life and consequently becomes trapped in the midpoint of adolescence. Convoying the discovery of smudged atrocities on his sister Phoebe's school, Caulfield begins to understand that individual’s loss of innocence remains` irresistible. He contemplates of how every child at the school could see the graffiti and, owing that he is young and innocent, he do not know what it implied. The thought drives him "near crazy" (Salinger 260). Caulfield discovers the fact that the communications written in school for children disturbing, wishing it could be possible that Phoebe with her friends could exist unpolluted by such rudimentary messages. In Caulfield’s views, young children like Phoebe signify everything that is pure and real about life, finding consolation in visiting Phoebe within earlier chapters. He despises the thought that their blamelessness w ill inevitably disappear one time. After seeing some more items of graffiti, Caulfield comments that "if you could get a million years of doing it in, you could not rub out even a half the "dirty" cryptograms in the world. It is practically impossible" (Salinger 262). Caulfield finally has his own epiphany - he understands that loss of innocence in children is unstoppable. Society is so corrupt for there to occur a utopian,

Evaluation methods for the proposed IAMS framework, model, and system Thesis

Evaluation methods for the proposed IAMS framework, model, and system - Thesis Example What the Evaluation Methods Should Achieve The appropriate evaluation method should reveal the most appropriate elements that would provide user opinions for an acceptable integration model for the physical and virtual identity management systems. In addition, the evaluation method should elucidate the most comprehensive and efficient IAMS framework for the integration of physical and virtual IAMS. Finally, the evaluation methods should have the capacity to test the components that constitute the conceptual model, so that the final model merges seamlessly with user expectations and usability preferences. Background to Evaluation Methods Good theoretical frameworks offer practicality in a wide range of situations, and therefore their importance in evaluation of IAMS frameworks cannot be overemphasized (Alkin, 2004). According to Alkin (2004), evaluations stem from social responsibility, monetary considerations, and social inquiry. In explaining the evaluation methodology, Alkin (2004) uses a comprehensive categorization based on use, methods, and value of the evaluation components. In this paper, three distinct evaluations are necessary to achieve the objectives of this research: expert evaluation, user evaluation, and evaluation through comparison with existing IAMS frameworks. Methods of Evaluating Expert and User Opinions Empowerment Evaluation Method An empowerment evaluation method would focus on helping a particular group of stakeholders, either clients seeking service through the IAMS or providers of the IAMS services. In addition, empowerment method takes into consideration feedback from different stakeholders (Fetterman and Wandersman, 2007). Expert evaluation with empowerment method therefore gives evaluators more... Evaluation methods for the proposed IAMS framework, model, and system Good theoretical frameworks offer practicality in a wide range of situations, and therefore their importance in evaluation of IAMS frameworks cannot be overemphasized (Alkin, 2004). According to Alkin (2004), evaluations stem from social responsibility, monetary considerations, and social inquiry. In explaining the evaluation methodology, Alkin (2004) uses a comprehensive categorization based on use, methods, and value of the evaluation components. In this paper, three distinct evaluations are necessary to achieve the objectives of this research: expert evaluation, user evaluation, and evaluation through comparison with existing IAMS frameworks. An empowerment evaluation method would focus on helping a particular group of stakeholders, either clients seeking service through the IAMS or providers of the IAMS services. In addition, empowerment method takes into consideration feedback from different stakeholders (Fetterman and Wandersman, 2007). Expert evaluation with empowerment method therefore gives evaluators more responsibility in a supervisory role than in an expert role. Methods that can use of empowerment evaluation include analysis of expert questionnaires, such as those collected for the purpose of this research (Fetterman, 2007). The overriding premise of empowerment evaluation is to help people contribute to what helps them carry out their roles (Sherriff & Porter, 2010).

Conflicts of the Twentieth Century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Conflicts of the Twentieth Century - Essay Example Through World War I, World War II, and the Cold War, the nations of Germany and Japan played critical roles. In the years before World War I, Germany's nationalism reached full tilt. The Germans were proud of their empire, military, and industry. They were keen to defend their empire against others, especially the British, who were shocked to find Germany's industrial output topping their own. In 1905 and 1911, competition for colonies brought France and Germany to the brink of war. Diplomacy prevented the outbreak of war then, but Germany did gain some territory in central Africa (Blum, Cameron, and Barnes, 1970, 320). Militarism in Germany also helped drive the world closer to war. The public viewed war with romantic eyes, and the notion of Social Darwinism suggested that, if a nation could become powerful enough to take what it wanted, then it ought to have it. As nations spent more and more money to create grand fighting machines, it must have seemed almost a shame to them to have no excuse to use them - much like a new yellow belt in a Tae Kwon Do class who is eagerly waiting for the school bully to give him an excuse to practice his martial arts. Germany's army and navy swelled in size to protect its empire and homeland, and other nation's reacted accordingly. Germany's military leadership encouraged aggression. Helmuth von Moltke, a high-ranking strategist, declared, "The German people must be made to see that we have to attack because of enemies' provocation. . . . [W]ar must seem like a deliverance from the great armaments, the financial burdens, the political tensions. . . ." (Snyder, 196 0, 377) Germany's participation in the alliance system also helped create the conflict of World War I. Kaiser William II encouraged Francis Joseph to take a firm stand against Serbia. The alliance system affected the nations of Europe and America, too. What should have been a small, localized conflict turned into a deadly contest between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy on one side, and France and Britain (and eventually the US) on the other side (Unger and Unger, 1990, 257). Germany's role in World War I had direct effects on Americans. Unrestricted submarine warfare by the German's helped draw America into the war. Americans on European vessels such as the Sussex and Lusitania would be killed while crossing the Atlantic. (They had been warned not to cross on those European ships, but this detail is often omitted in our national memory). America would be "threatened" from the south as German leaders encouraged Mexico to launch an attack against the US to regain its land lost in the Mexican-American War. The Zimmerman note sought to bring Mexico into the war. Germany forced America to decide between isolationism and a defense of democracy (Unger and Unger, 1990, 145). Likewise, Germany's role in World War II is hard to overstate. They were well-equipped for war, with plenty of material resources and a new leadership that captured public attention. Taking advantage of political instability and a fear of communism, Hitler speeded the rise of the Nazi Party. Concentrating on the unfairness of the Treaty of Versailles, the Jewish "problem," and a bad

Research and Evidence-Based Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Research and Evidence-Based Practice - Essay Example There are clinical nursing specialists who participate in specialized areas and also participate in the act of educational research. They are directly able to link the organization’s readiness to allow for the utilization of the resources at their disposal and the other members of staff. This actions are carried out for the purpose of ensuring that they identify the clinical problems affecting the emergency department and helping the staff members to discover their problems (Stetler, 2008). The role of the specialists mainly ensures that the staff members working within the emergency department implement the findings of their research while evaluating the effects of their findings in improving the delivery of health care to the patients (McClure & Hinshaw, 2002). Consequently, through their research efforts, the specialists get educated and are able to carry out their own independent investigations regarding the identified problems. Their involvement in research and other evid ence based practices additionally helps the specialists in collaborating with the other nurses working within their department (Melnyk & Fineout-Overhault, 2010). Alternatively, the clinical researchers among the nurses working in the emergency department of my organization usually focus on facilitating the research process. This is mainly achieved through their possession of the relevant skills in fields like administration, statistics and craftsmanship. They are charged with the responsibility of developing a relationship with the other nurses for the purpose of establishing the problems that they are encountering (McClure & Hinshaw, 2002). However, their main responsibility lies in ensuring that the research studies are well designed while helping the nurses to comprehend the research implications (Sherwill-Navarro & Roth, 2007). According to previous research, the responsibility of these nurses also includes the dissemination of research findings to other members of staff like t he organization’s administrators while providing them guidance regarding their role in the research process (Melnyk & Fineout-Overhault, 2010). In addition, these nurses are supposed to develop relationships with other external individuals and groups comprising of experts in order to obtain quality information regarding their problems (McClure & Hinshaw, 2002). Finally, the other emerging roles for the nurses working within my emergency department include leadership and collaborating with other members within this department and the others (Stetler, 2008). The model used in research and evidence-based practices within the

Analysis of Newspaper Research Report Results Essay Example for Free

Analysis of Newspaper Research Report Results Essay A study recently published in the San Jose Mercury News suggests the parents of obese children do not perceive their children as obese. An analysis of this study, its methods, and its findings is an important exercise in understanding the meaning and relevance of all research. The ability to read research critically and understand how it was generated allows us to identify possible design flaws or to realize the validity of its conclusions and make appropriate use of the data. The study was conducted through an internet research firm for the University of Michigan. Its goal was to determine the percentage of parents who realized their children are obese and to compare it to the percentage of parents that do not realize their children are obese. The participants were selected by simple random sampling and were considered a representative sample of American parents. The sample included 2060 respondents (Runk, 2007). The data appeared to be collected through internet surveys. The study was observational and measured continuous data sets including the height, weight, age, and gender of the participants children (Bennett, Briggs, Triola, 2003). A body mass index greater than or equal to the 95th percentile in comparison to children the same age and gender was the criteria used for obesity in this study. The data from these children was then compared the national percentage of children considered obese by the same standards. Qualitative data pertaining to whether or not the parents thought their children were slightly overweight, very overweight, or about right was also collected (Runk, 2007). Although it was not specifically stated, I hypothesize the children studied were broken down into bins by age and gender. The first bin comprised of obese girls six to 11 years old and the second bin obese boys six to11 years old. For the 12 to 17 year old group the first bin included obese girls 12 to 17 years old and the second bin included obese boys 12 to 17 years old. I further hypothesize the parents of children in each group were binned according to their response to the qualitative assessment of their childs weight. For each age group the first bin included parents who answered   very overweight, the second bin included parents who answered slightly overweight, and the third bin included parents who answered about normal (Bennett, Briggs, Triola, 2003). The findings in the six to 11 year old group revealed 15% of the children in this age group met the criteria for obesity. This finding was not significantly different from the national figure which reports 17% of all children in the United States are obese by the standard of this study. Thirteen percent of the parents of obese children in this age group categorized their children as very overweight, 37% classified their children as slightly overweight, and 43% reported their children were about right (Runk, 2007). The findings in the 12 to 17 year old group revealed 10% of children in this age group met the criteria for obesity. This finding is significantly lower than the national figure for obese children. Thirty one percent of the parents of obese children in this age group reported their children as being very overweight, 56% reported their children as slightly overweight, and 11% reported their children were about right (Runk, 2007). Researchers concluded both age groups under reported the incidence and severity of obesity when compared to the national statistic stating 17% of all children meet the criteria for obesity outlined in this study (Runk, 2007). I agree the severity of obesity was greatly under reported in both groups. However, I disagree with the assertion the incidence of obesity was under reported in the six to 11 year old group. I believe the difference between 15% and 17% could easily be a coincidence. It may also have resulted because the internet was used to collect data and poor children are more likely to be obese and less likely to have internet access (Vieweg, Johnston, Fernandez Pandurangi, 2007). I do agree that obesity seemed to be considerably under reported in the 12 to 17 year old group. A statistically significant difference (about 7%) occurred between that age groups 10% incidence and the 17% national incidence of childhood obesity (Runk, 2007). Such a large difference is unlikely to be a coincidence and supports the theory that obesity was under reported in this age group or  confounding was present (Bennett, Briggs, Triola, 2003). Critical analysis of this data reveals many strengths and a few significant weaknesses in the design and implementation of this study. The goal is clearly stated, to determine the percentage of parents who realized their children are obese and to compare it to the percentage of parents that do not realize their children are obese. This goal was clearly accomplished for all the study participants. The source of the study is the University of Michigan which can be considered a reliable, neutral source. The sampling is sufficiently large, but whether or not it is representative of childhood obesity in this country is questionable. A serious problem with the sample exists as a result of using the internet as the setting. High proportions of obese children are socioeconomically disadvantaged and may not have internet access. The internet setting is likely to account for the apparent under reporting of obese children noted in this study and as such is a probable source of confounding. The criterion for obesity is well defined and could be easily measured in all the subjects, but I remain concerned a significant portion of obese children may have been inadvertently omitted from consideration. In the end, however, I find there is a strong practical use for this data. Healthcare providers are made conscious of the fact that the parents are, more often than not, genuinely unaware their child is obese. This data supports the decision to open a dialogue with parents and offer teaching about the dangers and prevention of childhood obesity the clear course of action. References: Bennett, J., Briggs, W., Triola, M. (2003). Statistical Reasoning for EverydayLife, Second Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Addison Wesley. RetrievedDecember 5, 2007, from University of Phoenix rEsource HCS 438. Runk, D. (2007, December 24). Parents dont realize their kids are fat. MercuryNews (San Jose). Retrieved December 28, 2007, fromhttp://www.mercurynews.com/healthandscience/ci_7799918?nclick_check=1. Vieweg, V., Johnston, Fernandez, A., Pandurangi. A. (2007). Correlation between high risk obesity groups and low socioeconomic status in school children. Southern Medical Association. Retrieved January 12, 2008, from University of Phoenix library [EBSCOhost].

Investigation of Fracture Energy GF

Investigation of Fracture Energy GF ABSTRACT Concretes inherent brittleness, low tensile strength and premature micro-cracking phenomena can be improved, in the bulk material, by embedment of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), the 1-D allotrope of carbon which exhibit a remarkable combination of mechanical and transport properties. The present research aims in investigating the fracture energy, Gf, of modified cement mortar with Multi Wall Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs) under 3-point bending test with acoustic emission (AE). According to Rilem recommendation, it is reported that using the fracture toughness of mortars reinforced with variable loadings of multi-walled carbon nanotubes it can be determined the fracture energy, Gf. Moreover, it is widely known that fracture energy depends on both geometry and size of the test specimen. The results of load, CMOD, AE-activity and AE-energy are analyzed. 1. Introduction As the most widely used structural materials, concrete has been developed to meet constantly renewed requirements raised by construction of more and more structures [1]. Great research efforts are continuously invested towards improving its inherent brittleness, low tensile strength and premature micro-cracking phenomena by the introduction of third phases throughout its volume. While endowment of reinforcement and ductility are conventionally achieved through embedment of steel rods, additional reinforcement of the continuous phase can be achieved through the introduction of other micro- and nano-scale media [2-5]. However, an obvious shortage of concrete with largely enhanced strength grade is brittleness, which is of great concern related to the structural safety. Recent studies have focused on improving the properties of concrete with the addition of nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) or carbon nanofibers (CNFs). In addition, fibers control the crack patterns and determine failure modes of concrete members [6-9]. There are many fibers utilized in cement and concrete materials. The most common fibers are glass, carbon, aramid, polypropylene, and basalt fibers. The revolutionary one-dimensional allotrope of carbon with Youngs moduli approaching 1.4 TPa, seven times higher than of high-strength steel and tensile strengths above 100GPa, fifty times higher than the same reference material. At this moment the nanocomposite materials are considered the next generation materials for electronics, aeronautical, civil engineering and other applications [4, 10-13]. Carbon nanotubes have minimum diameters of 0.4nm and are classified as single- or multi-walled (SWCNTs and MWCNTs, respectively) and they produced by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and its variants (low pressure, thermal, catalytic and others). The most popular and affordable choice due to low commercial price are the ÃŽÅ“WCNTs but they have slightly inferior performance than SWCNTS which are lot expensive. Carbon nanofibers (CNFs), a similar nanostructured material comprised of cylindrically-shaped arrangements of stacked graphene plates or cones, have also been suggested as nano-re inforcements for concrete [14]. At nanocomposite materials a very important factor which will enable efficient load transfer from the cement matrix to the tubes, is the achievement of homogeneous dispersion of tubes within the continuous phase. The dispersion of MWCNTs, ideally without significant reduction in their high initial length and aspect ratio, usually achieved through the use of surfactants and sonication processes. This part attracts rigorous scientific efforts because CNTs tend to agglomerate together due to their high surface area and the strong Van der Waals forces acting between them. The agglomerates are responsible not only for stress concentration within the cement matrix which leads to strength degradation during service life, but also to premature crack initiation and propagation [15, 16]. On the other hand, there are a lot of studies which have referenced that surfactants create side-effects in cement matrix. Makar et al. reported strong early-age bonds between cement paste and CNTs[17]. Yazdanbakhsh [14] reported incompatibility issues, during the hydration phase, between cement base and the surfactants used for improving CNT dispersion. In addition the study observed reduction in aspect ratio length/diameter of MWCNT during exposure of the tubes to the high sonication energies required for disentanglement. It was suggested that the favorable dispersion characteristics found in aqueous environment does not guarantee a similarly favorable dispersion within the cement matrix. Enhancement of cements flexural toughness by CNTs hasnt been investigated largely by researchers and so there isnt a wide variety of reports. To the authors knowledge only one reference, Stynoski et al. [18] studied the fracture properties of Portland cement mortars containing carbon nanotubes, carbon fibers and silica fume using notched three-point bending test. They observed that using silica fume and carbon nanotubes together there was improvement in toughness about 35% and increment about 56% on critical crack tip opening displacement (CTODc) at 28 days. In addition using only carbon nanotubes provided. On the other hand, using only carbon nanotubes serves to increase in fracture toughness of about 5-10% at 7 and 28 days of age. In addition, the effect of carbon nanotubes has as result to increment the CTODc about 20% improvement at 28 days. But there are several of investigations which study the fracture properties of micro-fiber reinforced mortar with various additives. For exa mple, Moukwa et al. [19] studied the effect of alumino-silicate clays on the critical stress intensity factor and CTODc. They found that the use of silica fume and alumino-silicate clays increased the values of KIC, CTODC and the compressive strength of cementitious materials. In addition alumino-silicate clays are incorporated as substitutes for a fraction of the cement, the total porosity of hardened mixtures increases compared to that of hardened cement paste with no clay addition. Sarker et al. [20] studied the fracture behavior of geopolymer concrete (GPC) as compared to OPC concrete of similar compressive strength and containing the same size and type of aggregates. They found that the failure modes of the heat cured GPC specimens were generally more brittle than those of the OPC concrete specimens. Fracture energy of geopolymer concrete was similar to that of OPC concrete and fracture energy increased with compressive strength in both types of concrete. The critical stress in tensity factor of the GPC specimens was higher than that of the OPC concrete specimens for the same compressive strength and the difference in the fracture behaviors of GPC and OPC concrete is because of the higher bond and tensile strengths of GPC. Das et al. [21] replaced ordinary Portland cement (OPC) by limestone or a combination of limestone and fly ash/metakaolin and they observed that the new phases inside the mortar matrix can lead to enhanced fracture mechanics properties and ductility. Nikbin et al. [22] studied the fracture characteristics, such as fracture energy and Kic, of self-compacting concrete using notched three-point bend specimens for specimens with different coarse aggregate volume percent. 2. Materials and Test Methods 2.1. Materials, specimens and testing The Multi Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs) that used in the present work were synthesized via catalytic chemical vapor deposition and were commercially available by Shenzhen Nanotech Port Co. Ltd. (Shenzhen, China). Their nominal purity was higher than 97% and their amorphous carbon content was less than 3%. The nominal tube diameter ranged from 20 to 40 nm while their length ranged from 5 to 15 ÃŽÂ ¼m. In table 1 is shown the properties of multi-wall carbon nanotubes. Viscocrete Ultra 300 (Sika AG, Baar, Switzerland), a water-based superplasticizer comprised of polycarboxylate polymers was used as dispersion assistive agent; it was selected based on its efficiency in inhibiting air entrapment inside the specimens as well as because of its excellent resistance to mechanical and chemical attack. Table 1: Properties of multi-wall carbon nanotubes Parameters Values Type multi-wall CNTs Length 5-15 ÃŽÂ ¼m Main range of diameter 20-40 nm Production method: catalyzed CVD Purity à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 95% Ash à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0.2 wt% Special surface area 40-300 m3/g Amorphous carbon à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 3% For the production of nanocomposite mortar with tube loadings variable within 0.2, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6 and 0.8 wt% of cement, the following experimental protocol was adopted. Initially, superplasticer with MWCNTs at a ratio of 1.5/1 added in regular tap water and then follow magnetic stirring for 2 min. The resultant suspensions were subsequently ultrasonicated for 90 min at room temperature by aid of a Hielscher UP400S device (Hielscher Ultrasonics GmbH, Teltow, Germany) equipped with a cylindrical 22 mm diameter sonotrode delivering a power throughput of 4500 J/min at a frequency of 24 kHz. The specific combination of ultrasonication parameters was established as optimal for achievement of suspension homogeneity without tube aspect ratio impairment [15]. The ultrasonicated suspensions were transferred, along with ordinary Portland cement type I 42.5N and natural sand into the bucket of a rotary mixer where it was mixed for a total of 4 minutes, in low and high speeds sequentially, as per standard test method BS EN 196-1. Immediately after mixing, the fresh mortar was poured into metallic oiled formworks, volumes of 160x40x40 mm3, where it was left for 24 hours before demolding and subsequent placement into a 100% humidity room for duration of 28 days. A total 50 specimens were prepared, divided into two sets of five specimens at each CNT formulation, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 wt% of cement. In one set, suspensions were further processed in a vacuum environment for removal of entrapped air before they were mixed with the cement and sand by aid of a rotary mixer. Additional mixtures without nanotubes were also prepared for reference purposes. The above procedure is shown schematically in fig. 1. After 28 days maturation were created a notch in specimens with cut-wheel with depth 20mm. Figure 1: Schematic representation of the nano-modifield mortars manufacturing process [5] In addition fig. 2 depicts the as-processed state of MWCNT-reinforced concrete specimens with varying tube loadings. The bottom row depicts reference specimens, whereas the top and middle rows show specimens with tube loadings of 0.6 and 0.2 wt% of cement, respectively, wherein porosity appears to increase with nano-reinforcement concentration. Figure 2: Various amounts of carbon nanotube loadings inside cement matrix: 0.6 wt% of cement (top row), 0.2 wt% of cement (middle row) and plain cement (bottom row) 2.2 Acoustic Emission Monitoring Large concrete structures like buildings, storage tanks, bridges, dams, offshore structures, flyovers require reliable non-destructive testing methods for assessing structure integrity. Acoustic emission is a widely used technique for monitoring concrete structures, and is based on the phenomenon of the rapid release of energy from different localized sources inside a material generating elastic waves [23]. Such stress waves propagate through the solid due to energy released during the deformation process and the amount of acoustic energy released depends on the size, the speed of the local deformation process and the material. AE can detect lesions such as crack growth, fracture growth, monitoring deformations, corrosion etc. in a wide range of materials. The transducers are usually piezoelectric and transform the energy of the transient elastic wave to an electric waveform which is digitized and stored. The AE sensors record the accumulated activity which is indicative of the sever ity of cracking. Certain indices based on the magnitude or the number of the AE signals has been employed successfully in the health monitoring of heterogeneous structural materials like concrete and composites. In addition, when multiple sensors are applied, apart from the number of AE hits, it is possible to be found the source of events because of the time delay between the acquisitions of the corresponding signals at different sensors. This allows the estimation of which part of the material needs repair, which is of paramount importance for large-scale structures. Also via AE the materials mode of fracture can be studied and characterized [24-26]. However, there are other important aspects of the AE testing, which are based on the qualitative parameters of the received signals. It has been seen that the shape of the waveform is indicative of the fracture type, something very important for the classification of cracks in different materials. Shear cracks follow tensile cracks as damage is being accumulated within the material. Therefore, the characterization of the cracking mode can act as a warning against final failure. It has been shown that tensile events are linked to higher frequency content and higher RA value, fig. 3, than shear [27-30]. This is mainly due to the larger part of energy transmitted in the form of shear waves, which are slower; therefore, the maximum peak of the waveform delays considerably compared to the onset of the initial longitudinal arrivals, This kind of classification has proven useful in laboratory conditions concerning corrosion cracking in concrete, fracture of cross-ply laminates, as well as d iscrimination between tensile matrix cracking and fiber pull-out during bending of steel-fiber reinforced concrete [31, 32]. In fig. 3 and in fig. 4 is given a typical AE signal and a typical AE signal due to different types of fracture respectively. Figure 3: Typical AE signal and parameters Figure 4: Typical AE signals due to different types of fracture 2.3 Mechanical performance Determination of the fracture toughness by means of three-point bend tests on notched beams In the present study for calculation of the critical fracture toughness of cementitious materials used the Hilleborgs [33] crack model of concrete which is similar with Dugdale-Barenblatt crack model of metals. For cementitious composite materials, such as mortar or concrete, the fracture toughness is determined using linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) considerations. The P-CMOD response is obtained from notched beams, subjected to the center-point loading conà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ guration shown in fig. 5. The tests are performed under CMOD control, where this parameter is measured using a clip gage mounted on knife-edges. The thickness of the knife-edges, d, is taken into account in the calculations. Figure 5: Three-point bend test configuration for notched beam specimen For this geometry, the stress intensity factor (KI) is given by where P is the applied load, a is the crack length and ÃŽÂ ± = a / W is the relative crack length (with S=3W and ÃŽÂ ±o=ao/W=0,25). The geometry dependent function, f(ÃŽÂ ±) is determined using two-dimensional plane stress analysis and is given by Where when when Also, in a similar way, where the dimensionless geometry-dependent function, g(ÃŽÂ ±), is given by Where when when As it is evident from fig. 1, the CMOD is not measured exactly at the notch mouth but at a distance d, which must be taken into account for determining the real value of CMOD from that measured in the test (denoted as CMODMesured). Therefore, The conversion factor kd can be determined, for 1 mm d 6 mm, from The coefficients used to compute kd for the CMOD correction are given in table 2 for different knife-edge thicknesses. Table 2: Coefficients used to compute kd for the CMOD correction d(mm) h1 h2 h3 h4 1 0.0050 275.1 275.9 0.0399 2 0.1508 162.5 163.6 0.0118 3 0.1037 104.1 105.1 0.01631 4 0.0777 76.2 77.2 0.0137 5 0.0623 60.2 61.1 0.0117 6 0.0521 49.7 50.6 0.0106 For large ÃŽÂ ± (> 0,4) the correction is insignificant, hence for specimens with relative notch lengths in the order of 0,4, no correction needs to be applied. Moreover, for thin knife-edges (d Determination of the fracture energy by means of three-point bend tests on notched beams The fracture energy is defined as the amount of energy necessary to create one unit area of a crack. The area of a crack is defined as the projected area on a plane parallel to the main crack direction. This test method is not recommended for fiber-reinforced concrete. The fracture energy is determined by the equation, [N/m (J/] Where, Wo (Nm), is the area under the load-deformation curve shown in fig. 6 (kg) ; m1 = weight of the beam between the supports, calculated as the beam weight multiplied by S/L (fig. 1). The length L of the beam as well as the span S during the test must be measured with an accuracy of at least 1 mm; m2 = weigth of the part of the loading device touching the beam which is not attached to the testing machine, but follows the beam until fracture; g = acceleration due to gravity (9,81 m/s2); ÃŽÂ ´o = deformation of the beam at fracture (m), as shown in fig. 2; Alig = area of the ligament (m2), defined as the projection of the fracture zone on a plane perpendicular to the beam axis. Figure 6: Load-deformation (CMOD) curve Test procedure for fracture energy measurement The test is performed with an approximately constant rate of deformation, which is chosen so that the maximum load is reached within about 30-60 seconds after the start of the test. The deformation of the center of the beam and the corresponding load are registered until the beam is completely separated into two halves. In case the deformation is not measured directly on the specimen it is recommended that before measuring the load-deformation curve the load is cycled 3 times between 5% and 25% of the expected maximum load. The load should be measured with an accuracy of at least 2% of the maximum value in the test. The deformation must be measured with an accuracy of at least 0.01 mm. Finally, the Crack Mouth Opening Displacement (CMOD) will be monitored during the test performed with controlled load in a closed-loop testing machine. The load will be applied at a rate between 2 and 3 N/s. A plot of CMOD versus applied load will be produced. Mechanical characterization under three po int bending testing was performed on an Instron 5967 testing frame (Instron, Norwood, MA, USA) equipped with a 30kN loadcell. For the accurate recording of displacement C.M.O.D were used a Crack Opening Displacement (COD) Gauge extensometer with gauge length 10mm by Instron company. 3. Results and Discussion The effect of CNT presence and concentration to the flexural and compressive strength has investigated in previous study. The researchers were observed that subjection of the suspension to the vacuum-assisted air removal procedure significantly enhanced the materials flexural strength, compared to non-vacuumed suspensions. The maximum improvement in flexural strength, compared to the control specimens for vacuumed suspensions, appeared at 0.4 wt% MWCNT loading and was approximately 17% improvement at 0.2, 0.6 and 0.8 wt% loadings were 12, 10 and 9% respectively [4]. In the present study, the fracture energy of vacuum and non-vacuume nanocomposite mortar, Gf, as the way the fracture energy effects on the acoustic emission energy are investigated. In respect to the flexural strength the researcher observed that the specimens had the similar behavior as shown in table 3. The flexural strength calculated by using the following equation, where L, B, W and a0 are specimens dimensions prese nting in fig. 5. à Ã†â€™ = Table 3: Comparison results of Flexural strength between specimens with and without notch. Flexural Strength[MPa] [4] Flexural Strength with notch[Mpa] CNT loading, wt% of cement Non-VacuumedSuspensions VacuumedSuspensions Non-VacuumedSuspensions VacuumedSuspensions 0 (plain) 5.36  ± 0.38 5.43  ± 0.23 5.72  ± 0.21 5.64  ± 0.25 0.2 4.15  ± 0.28 6.09  ± 0.43 4.73  ± 0.22 5.98  ± 0.11 0.4 4.61  ± 0.48 6.34  ± 0.67 5.00  ± 0.34 6.74  ± 0.13 0.6 4.97  ± 0.36 6.01  ± 0.66 4.83  ± 0.33 6.12  ± 0.31 0.8 4.78  ± 0.21 5.92  ± 0.5 4.87  ± 0.28 6.35  ± 0.39 It is widely known that CNTs increase the mechanical properties. Table 4 shows the results of effect of CNTs to the fracture energy, Gf, for vacuumed and non-vacuumed specimens. It is clearly that CNTs increase the fracture energy and the maximum value appears in the rate of 0.4% wt. cement CNTs. Above the rate of 0.4% there were reduction in the fracture energy however the values of Gf continues are higher than control specimens. In addition, all non-vacuumed specimens showed slightly elevated values than the control specimens but lower for vacuumed specimens because of porosity which is created because of CNTs. Table 4: Comparison results of Fracture energy between Vacuumed and Non-Vacuumed suspensions Fracture Energy [N/m (J/m2)] CNT loading, wt% of cement Non-VacuumedSuspensions VacuumedSuspensions 0 (plain) 1.1655  ± 0.063 1.1281  ± 0.060 0.2 1.1681  ± 0.122 2.0338  ± 0.086 0.4 1.6910  ± 0.115 6.5373  ± 0.369 0.6 2.1460  ± 0.050 2.9987  ± 0.383 0.8 1.8185  ± 0.200 2.4623  ± 0.165 Except for plain specimens which had similar fracture energy, the fracture energy of the specimens which had been in vacuum was increased. Gf of the nanocomposite with 0.2% and 0.4% wt. cement CNTs was found to be higher at about 80% and 479% respectively related to control specimens while for 0.6% and 0.8% wt. cement CNTs was found an increment at about 166% and 118% respectively. On the other hand, non-vacuumed nanocomposite specimens with 0.2% wt. cement CNTs were found it that had limited growth about only 0.2%. Greater increase of approximately 45%, 84% and 56% showed the nanocomposites specimens with 0.4 %, 0.6% and 0.4% wt. cement CNTs respectively. Comparing the two types of mixtures, vacuumed and non-vacuumed, the results showed that the fracture energy increment for all rates for vacuumed specimens. Specifically, for the rates 0.2% and 0.4% wt. cement CNTs the increments were about 74% and 287% respectively while for 0.6% and 0.8% wt. the increments were only 40% and 36% re spectively. The entire above are shown in fig. 7. Finally, fig. 8 shows a typical load-CMOD graph for all rates, 0% up to 0.8% wt. cement CNTs, of vacuumed nanocomposite specimens and non-vacuumed specimens. Figure 7: Diagram of Fracture Energy, Gf, results Figure 8: Typical load-CMOD curve for all rates of nanocomposite specimens for a) vacuumed and b) non-vacuumed are presented. For Acoustic Emission (AE) monitoring in real time under three point bending tests of CNT-reinforced concrete specimens two R15a AE sensors were used, with broadband response ranging from 50 to 400 kHz and a maximum sensitivity at 150 kHz, attached on the lower section of the specimen. The R15a is a narrow band resonant sensor with a high sensitiv

The Edutained American :: essays research papers fc

The â€Å"Edutained† American You may try to deny it; many of us do. We are our own people, with our own thoughts, feelings, and opinions. We are individuals, and nothing influences us without our knowledge and permission. Certainly not the media; we create the media, after all, and direct it with our own tastes and preferences. It is merely a part of our lives, a not-too pervasive part. We say this with absolute certainty and still know that we lie. For the media is not a part of our lives, it is our lives. It directs us, moves us towards what its creators, directors and sponsors want us to see. Everything we do is not media influenced, it is media-dictated. In some ways, our modern information systems are helpful. They are, after all, informative. From these systems we learn, we process the information they bring on current events, popular culture, and every other subject known to man. But the information is tainted. It is filtered through the corporate sponsors and the agen das of those who bring it to us. Therefore we bow to the opinions of those who give us our knowledge on every subject they expose us to, from the clothes we buy, to the music we listen to, the films we see, books we read, politicians we vote for, religions we believe in. Our thoughts are not our own. What does this mean to the world in which we live? How does this effect our leaders, our schools and our families? And in a society so permeated with media, how do we regain ourselves? Part One: What are our influences? For many of us who attend college now, the media has been around us since birth. The television was a effective babysitter, and we grew up accustomed to the quick, joke-a-minute style of cartoons and situation comedies. With the advent of MTV in 1981, we learned to absorb information through the two and three minute stories offered on that channel, as well as VH1 and BET. These channels opened to us a world that most of our parents simply didn’t see as children. O ne hour of MTV’s Total Request Live can show a child a re-enactment of JFK’s assassination, done by Marylin Manson, in one of the most popular videos of the week. The words of the song, however true and relevant they may be, are lost in the image, in closeup and slow motion.

Prejudice in America Essay example -- Prejudice United States

Prejudice, the Spoil of Life I was born and raised in Europe. I have learned from my history books that there were freedom and equality in the United States. I learned that, among many other rights, people enjoy freedom of religion and freedom of speech - the rights that were envied by millions of people of the Eastern Block countries. When I came to the United States, I truly believed in the truthfulness of these terms. To my complete satisfaction, my experience taught me the existence of these facts. However, I became disappointed in my surroundings, when I was forced to recognize that a portion of people were not free of prejudice. "Prejudice," Gordon Allport writes, "is thinking ill of others without sufficient warrant" (Allport, qtd. in Rottenberg and Winchell 81). This short definition helped me to discover that, regardless of race, color, national origin, or gender, people share a universally existing problem: prejudice. Despite of my experience regarding prejudice, many people believe that prejudice does not exist, and one should not interpret the opinion of others as prejudice. These people reason that it is their right to express their opinions. However, I do not agree with this judgment. Let me bring Gordon Allport's essay of "The Nature of Prejudice," and his observation of the types of prejudice to my defense. According to Allport, who summarized the different types of prejudices and defined prejudice in his essay, some people feel dislike against minorities, but they are not able to explain their reasoning, however. Allport found that this dislike is a mannerism taught by society and surfaces in their "treatment to Negroes" (Allport, qtd. in Rottenberg and Winchell 80). Others, who live "in various parts of ... ...e years, but I still receive unfair treatment at times. Besides some occasional unfairness, the majority of people find my heritage rather interesting than controversial. My experience is only one example of the thousands of incidents against people. No matter where I look, I see unfair treatment all over the world. Regardless of the continent or culture, nobody is exempt from biases. But I cannot blame people carrying this disease because any average community has to rely on a limited amount of knowledge. However, and my experience is the best example, it takes time, effort, and courage to reveal causes and reasoning to draw up a conclusion so that the public would have a full understanding of the historical background of any newcomer. Works Cited Rottenberg, Annette T., and Donna Haisty Winchell. Elements of Argument. 8th. Boston: Bedford/St Martin's, 2006. Prejudice in America Essay example -- Prejudice United States Prejudice, the Spoil of Life I was born and raised in Europe. I have learned from my history books that there were freedom and equality in the United States. I learned that, among many other rights, people enjoy freedom of religion and freedom of speech - the rights that were envied by millions of people of the Eastern Block countries. When I came to the United States, I truly believed in the truthfulness of these terms. To my complete satisfaction, my experience taught me the existence of these facts. However, I became disappointed in my surroundings, when I was forced to recognize that a portion of people were not free of prejudice. "Prejudice," Gordon Allport writes, "is thinking ill of others without sufficient warrant" (Allport, qtd. in Rottenberg and Winchell 81). This short definition helped me to discover that, regardless of race, color, national origin, or gender, people share a universally existing problem: prejudice. Despite of my experience regarding prejudice, many people believe that prejudice does not exist, and one should not interpret the opinion of others as prejudice. These people reason that it is their right to express their opinions. However, I do not agree with this judgment. Let me bring Gordon Allport's essay of "The Nature of Prejudice," and his observation of the types of prejudice to my defense. According to Allport, who summarized the different types of prejudices and defined prejudice in his essay, some people feel dislike against minorities, but they are not able to explain their reasoning, however. Allport found that this dislike is a mannerism taught by society and surfaces in their "treatment to Negroes" (Allport, qtd. in Rottenberg and Winchell 80). Others, who live "in various parts of ... ...e years, but I still receive unfair treatment at times. Besides some occasional unfairness, the majority of people find my heritage rather interesting than controversial. My experience is only one example of the thousands of incidents against people. No matter where I look, I see unfair treatment all over the world. Regardless of the continent or culture, nobody is exempt from biases. But I cannot blame people carrying this disease because any average community has to rely on a limited amount of knowledge. However, and my experience is the best example, it takes time, effort, and courage to reveal causes and reasoning to draw up a conclusion so that the public would have a full understanding of the historical background of any newcomer. Works Cited Rottenberg, Annette T., and Donna Haisty Winchell. Elements of Argument. 8th. Boston: Bedford/St Martin's, 2006.

The Skystone and The Singing Sword :: Historical Novels Jack Whyte Essays

The Skystone and The Singing Sword Marion Zimmer Bradley, a book critic, says The Skystone is "one of the most interesting historical novels that I've ever read, and I've read plenty"(Front cover). In writing, success is generally a direct result of an author being able to keep a reader interested. Jack Whyte is an interesting and successful author throughout The Skystone and The Singing Sword because of his development of characters and his ability to write strategically. Character development is an important element in a story because if readers feel strongly about the characters, they are interested in reading further, and are more apt to enjoy the novel. Jack Whyte effectively develops the characters Caius Britannicus and Claudius Seneca through their words and actions in The Skystone and The Singing Sword, creating a strong impression of these characters in the mind of the reader. Another crucial element to Jack Whyte's success is his strategical writing. His ability to seize the attention of a reader imm ediately, and to maintain that level of intrigue throughout the novel until his climactic ending is reached, demonstrates a well planned writing strategy, and is a significant contribution to his success. In The Skystone and The Singing Sword, Jack Whyte's character development and strategical writing create and maintain the interest of the reader, exhibiting a basis for his success. In Jack Whyte's novels, he develops his characters effectively, sparking the interest of the reader. In The Skystone and The Singing Sword, one of the characters that Whyte develops well is Caius Britannicus. Throughout these two novels, Britannicus' development is seen through the eyes of Publius Varrus, the main character, and Britannicus' eventual lifelong friend. From the very beginning of their friendship, Publius recognizes the qualities of Caius as a person, and as a leader, and describes them in The Skystone when saying, from the outset of our relationship Britannicus invariably treated me with military correctness, slightly warmed by courtesy and consideration. I found him to be just, temperate, and dispassionate in his dealings with the men under his command. But he could be awesome in his wrath when provoked by incompetence or malfeasance. A rigid disciplinarian, he was implacable once he had decided that punishment was in order. And never, at any time, did he show any ca pacity for suffering fools gladly(37). Although Caius does not initially strike the reader as a particularly amiable character, Jack Whyte continues to develop Britannicus and his friendship with Publius, revealing a more compassionate character.

Automated Inventory System and Pos Essay

A lot of companies and organizations needed the help of computers because of its speed, precision and productivity. Moreover, many businesses flourished because production was increased and human errors were lessened and management decisions were facilitated through accurate and reliable information generated by software applications. The business world has become dependent to the massive use of computers and electronics. Nowadays, almost every corporate and company, great or small, enhances their business success rates and profitability through the use of computers. In Inventory System with POS whether automated or manual, comprises of machines, people, and/or methods organized to process, disseminate and transmit data that represent user information. An Inventory System with POS is a system that supports a business in the monitoring of items and sales. Also, it is a computer processing in which the computer responds immediately to user requests. Thus, Malaya and Lumber Construction Supply, the subject of this study, is in need of an inventory and sales software to help them identify inventory requirements, set targets, and report actual and projected inventory status. The introduction of an automated system hopes to optimize the inventory levels and eliminate stock-outs. BRIEF HISTORY Malaya Lumber and Construction Supply has been a recognized name in the Makati Hardware industry for over 40 years. Malaya Lumber and Construction Supply carry a wide range of construction supply to suit every need. The Malaya Lumber and Construction Supply range includes industry renowned hardware equipment’s from leading manufacturers including YELE, CEMEX, ABOY, etc. Malaya Lumber and Construction Supply, supply a range of electrical, sand, cement, steel, plywood, sink, toilets, plumbing and tiles to suit every budget. 1.1 Statement of the Problem Malaya Lumber and Construction Supply are having difficulty in monitoring their inventory and sales. * How to design and develop a module to monitor the availability of their items. * How to generate reports as per client needs, for e.g. Sales Report, Inventory Sales Report. * How to track the return/exchange of the items. 1.2 Current State of the Technology Malaya Lumber and Construction Supply are currently using a labor-intensive process in inventory, calculating of sales and producing reports. Listed below are classifications of internal operations that enable the company to do business with the public. Purchase OrdersSales Inventory Re-OrderBack-OrderReports These classifications are done by hand and most of the information is stored on a ‘Logbook’ and with sales transaction is completed thru a pre-printed numbered blank receipt. The needed reports are mostly encoded by a managerial level employee thru Microsoft Excel. Problems like misplace files of records are minimized and will help them alleviate deluge track of work done by existing age-old use of the hand system and logbook based record keeping. The proposed Inventory System with Point of Sale will make daily operations effective and convenient to use as well. 1.3 Objective 1.3.1 General Objective The proponents aim to develop a computerized Inventory System with Point-of-Sale for the Malaya Lumber and Construction Supply that will aid their daily operations regarding their inventory and sales function. 1.3.2 Specific Objectives * To provide a monitoring module that will track the availability of items in the inventory. * To create a module that will generate reports for Inventory and Sales. * To develop a module that will track the record of the return and exchange of the items. 1.3.3 Scope and Limitations Scope This study is exclusively developed for Malaya Lumber and Construction Supply. This study is concerned to develop an Inventory System with Point of Sale for Malaya Lumber and Construction Supply which covers sale transactions and monitoring stocks. The system provides the following functionalities: 1. Display inventory conditions of the products, including stock, out-of-stock, back-ordered or pre-orderable. 2. Filter product listing to show only those products that are currently available in stock. 3. Decrement inventory levels when orders are processed. 4. Receive notifications when inventory levels reach an out-of-stock threshold. * The system has the capability to keep track customer and supplier information. * A delivery module that monitors products delivered by the supplier and products delivered to the costumers. * The system has the capability to create a back-up copy of database file. * The system has a security to keep all information secured for unauthorized users. * The system has a module that will prompt the user if a particular item has reach its critical level. * The system will be implemented in a LAN based network. * Report Module generates hard copy of record data in a daily, quarterly and annually basis. Limitation * The system will not support bar -coding for items. * The system is incapable of accepting credit cards as payment. * There is no record entry in computation of tax payment for submission in BIR. * The system does not support schedule of delivery for the clients. Chapter 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction Every computer system should be supported by theories. Given that the proponents intend to develop a sales and inventory system, theories concerning inventory control and transaction processing system should be studied. Computer related topics, such as database, GUIs and others, is also studied. These theories will eventually lead to the overall structure and design of a system. The theories mentioned in this chapter will be the foundation of the propose system. 2.2 Inventory Control System Some of the best inventory management software is equipped with a low-level warning system that will alert you when your stock is getting low so you don’t run out of something that is selling well. You also have the ability to see in real time what stock you have on hand at another location and keep track of it. If you offer item kits it’s important to use a program that will allow you to keep an eye on your sales and inventory so that your kits are all accounted for. [TOPT2013] 2.3 Software Prototyping Prototyping is the process of building a model of a system. In terms of an information system, prototypes are employed to help system designers build an information system that intuitive and easy to manipulate for end users. Prototyping is an iterative process that is part of the analysis phase of the systems development life cycle. [UMSL2012] 2.3 Transaction Processing System A transaction process system (TPS) is an information processing system for business transactions involving the collection, modification and retrieval of all transaction data. Characteristics of a TPS include performance, reliability and consistency. [TECH2013] 2.4 Graphic User Interface A graphical user interface (GUI) is a human-computer interface (i.e., a way for humans to interact with computers) that uses windows, icons and menus and which can be manipulated by a mouse (and often to a limited extent by a keyboard as well). GUIs stand in sharp contrast to command line interfaces (CLIs), which use only text and are accessed solely by a keyboard. The most familiar example of a CLI too many people is MS-DOS. Another example is Linux when it is used in console mode (i.e., the entire screen shows text only). [LINF2004] 2.5 Database A database is a set of data that has a regular structure and that is organized in such a way that a computer can easily find the desired information. Data is a collection of distinct pieces of information, particularly information that has been formatted (i.e., organized) in some specific way for use in analysis or making decisions. A database can generally be looked at as being a collection of records, each of which contains one or more fields (i.e., pieces of data) about some entity (i.e., object), such as a person, organization, city, product, work of art, recipe, chemical, or sequence of DNA. For example, the fields for a database that is about people who work for a specific company might include the name, employee identification number, address, telephone number, date employment started, position and salary for each worker. [LINF2006] 2.6 Database Normalization Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database. This includes creating tables and establishing relationships between those tables according to rules designed both to protect the data and to make the database more flexible by eliminating redundancy and inconsistent dependency. [MICR2013] 2.7 Computer Network A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices that are linked together through communication channels to facilitate communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of users. Networks are commonly categorized based on their characteristics. [TECH2013] 2.8 Back-up In the computer world, a backup is a copy of some data. This copy could be used to restore the original data when the original information is lost or damaged. You can make backups of your data manually, by copying your files to another place: a CD, another disc, another machine, to a tape device, etc. Ideally, the copy should be stored on another physical place and should not be stored on the same room where the original is. In case of disaster, like a fire, having both the original data and the backup on the same physical place could be fatal. I recommend you to make multiple copies of your valuable data: for example, you can have a copy stored on another hard drive and another copy on some remote FTP server, for maximum security. [COBI2009] 2.8 Summary Different theories the proponents have taken to consideration to develop our sales and inventory system. The proponents studied the inventory and transaction theory so that we can have of idea on how this concept works. The software prototyping will help the proponents and the customer to have overview of the outline of the system. The database normalization theory will play a huge role in an inventory system. The inventory system will handle numerous amounts of data so it will be hard to have the database normalized properly. Back-up theory will help to ensure the safety of the data. For internal cooperation on the company, the system will be implemented in a LAN environment. The graphical user interface theory will help in making the design more user-friendly. Chapter 4 Performance Analysis 4.1 Introduction This chapter gives the procedures on how the proponents used to analyze and test the performance of the system. The proponent’s objective was to provide a monitoring module and to create a module that generate reports and to develop a module that will tract the record. The group conducted proper testing procedures to prove that the system is capable of doing necessary requirements. The intended users of the system are the sales representative, purchaser, cashier and the administrator. The sales representative manages all the walk-in orders and delivery orders. The purchaser manages all the transaction in ordering products and monitoring of inventory. The cashier manages the payment of the customers. The administrator is the one who updates the file maintenance, process the access level, makes backup and restores the database of their system. 4.2 Experimental List of testing procedures below are the aspects used by the proponents to measure all functions accurately according to the specific objectives of the systems. 4.2.1 Unit Testing Refers to test that verify the functionality of specific section code, usually at the function level. The proponents conducted an intensive testing of all validation rules implemented. Using the system, proponents entered some values to all data entry forms to check all valid, invalid and limit of all input. In addition to that, the proponents checked what are the result, kind of value and attributes will return if it was called. Overall consistency of system’s application is also check on this experimentation. 4.2.2 Integration testing It is any type of software testing that seeks to verify the interfaces between components against a software design. Software components may be integrated in an iterative way or all together. In this part of experiment, the objective of proponents was to expose defects in the interface and interaction between integrated components. The proponents studied all the areas of inventory and sales to make sure if every module and its functions are integrated properly, specially the computation of commission and generations of all necessary reports. 4.2.3 System testing The proponents examined a complete integrated system to verify that it meets its requirements. The accuracy and consistency of the computerize system was very effective rather than the old business process hence the proponents realize the opposite of new process and old convention of their business. 4.2.3 Alpha testing Alpha testing is simulate or actual operational testing by the prospective user or an independent test team at the developers site. Alpha testing was conducted at the developers’ site by the sales rep. to make sure if there’s a problem when using the said system. Therefore, the sales rep. gave some suggestions and comments about the process of the system to enable the proponents to gain more information. 4.3 Results and Analysis The proponents had finished the experimental and proceeds to the analysis of all problems encountered. The following are the errors and the proponents’ actions during the experimental of the system. * Logic Errors The types of errors occur when incorrect judgment and reason used during system development. This usually occurred when loops were not properly terminated, incorrect assignments were done, and incorrect comparison made during filtering operations. * Syntax Errors Syntax errors occur when typographical errors and incorrect usage of object properties and other keywords were used. The group has ensured that all syntax errors have been eliminated. * An updateable Query This error occurred when fields in the tables of the system’s database were being update while the database was currently in a read only mode. * Expected Statement Error (End If without If) This error occurs when the End If of the If Statement is placed wrongly or the If Statement does not have a corresponding End If. * Integrity Constrains This error occurs when a record having child record are being deleted or a record that is being added contains a similar primary key code as an existing record in database. * 4.4 Summary The result of series of testing and analysis proved to be satisfactory for both the proponents and customers. The system was able to perform the processes that it is intended to do. The system was able to efficiently record and monitor sales and products of the company therefor making it for the administrator and the sales representative to monitor items and sales. It also made the sales rep. work easier because the system provided them with a file maintenance module that enables to add, edit, delete and back-up files. The system was also able automatically print all the important reports that customers needed. Shifting the process of Malaya Lumber and Construction Supply from unorganized to well organize system by automating it is a big help out to the company. Since the system has been tested thoroughly, it was able to perform well thus making a processes a lot easier for the Malaya personnel. Chapter 5 CONCLUSION The proponents have to complete all the requirements and specifications of the system which include a monitoring module, report generating and a module that will tract the record. The developers have successfully met the objectives of the study. Specifically, the system was able to secure all the records from unauthorized personnel to maintain data integrity to be generated using Log-in featured of the system. For payment and cashiering, with the use of the system, producing receipts were easier and faster without miscalculating of service rendered of every employee. With the used of Computerized Sales and Inventory for Malaya Lumber and Construction Supply, sales, delivery and inventory of products are efficiently monitored and recorded. Also, fast and accurate generation of reports is provided. Therefore, the proponents conclude that the produce outputs and operation of Computerized Sales and Inventory System for Malaya Lumber and Construction Supply are proven enhance and better than the company’s current labor intensive system. BIBLIOGRAPHY World Wide Web: [TOPT1013]toptenreviews (2013), ‘Inventory Control System’ http://inventory-software-review.toptenreviews.com/ [UMSL2012]umsl (2012), ‘Software Prototyping’ http://www.umsl.edu/~sauterv/analysis/prototyping/proto.html [TECH2013]techopedia (2013), ‘Transaction Processing System’ http://www.techopedia.com/definition/707/transaction-process-system-tps [LINF2004]linfo (2004), ‘Graphic User Interface’ http://www.linfo.org/gui.html [LINF2006]linfo (2006), ‘Database’ http://www.linfo.org/database.html [MICR2013]support.microsoft (2013), ‘Database Normalization’ http://support.microsoft.com/kb/283878 [TECH2013]techopedia (2013), ‘Computer Network’ http://www.techopedia.com/definition/25597/computer-network [COBI2009]cobiansoft (2009), ‘Back-up’ http://www.cobiansoft.com/backuptheory.htm ACKNOWLEDGEMENT APENDICES

Attending Skills Essay

Bolton, in his book People Skills (1979), describes attending as giving all of your physical attention to another person. The process of attending, whether you realize it or not, has a considerable impact on the quality of communication that goes on between two people. For example, by attending you are saying to the other person â€Å"I am intersted in what you have to say†, however, a lack of good attending communicates that â€Å"I really don’t care about what you have to say. † The body can be used as a tool to facilitate good communication. This is done through positioning the parts of the body so that they invite and hold an interpersonal relation. A relaxed alertness expressed by body posture seems best suited for fostering good communication. Bolton offers these suggestions to establish a posture of involvment: * Lean toward the speaker. This will communicate energy and attentiveness. * Face the other squarly (i. e. , your right sholuder to the speakers left). This communicates your involvment. It is especially important for you to position yourself so that you are at eye level with the speaker if you are seen as a authority figure. This will circumnavigate feelings of threat and can greatly aid in forming an interpersonal relationship. * Maintaining an open posture is also important for fostering interpersonal relatedness. A closed posture (i. e. , crossed arms and or legs) often communicates coldness and defensiveness. * You also need to be aware of your proximity to the speaker. We all have a concept of â€Å"personal space. † When those boundaries are crossed it puts the other on the defensive and makes them feel uncomfortable. However, to much distance communicates aloofness and disconectedness. Body motion, it’s a funny thing! Have you ever paid attention to what your hands were doing during the course of a conversation? Some of us simply shove them in our pockets or let them hang aimlessly by our sides. Then there are others, like me, who tend to fling them around as if to place some kind of emphasis on each word! There is such a thing as too little and too much. Body motion is good but it can be over done if you are not careful. The purpose of gesturing when you are listening is to encourage the speaker to continue speaking. This can most easily be done with a periodic head nod. A good listener moves his or her body in response to the speaker. Effective eye contact says that you are visually attuned to what the speaker is saying. Good eye contact involves focusing on the speakers face and occasionally shifting the focus to other parts of the body. The key is that the other is aware that they have your attention because your eyes are â€Å"on them†. Good eye contact should seem natural to the other person. What ever you do, don’t â€Å"stare them down. † This makes you seem anxious and sometimes critical of them. The environment where the communication takes place is also an important factor in whether an interpersonal relationship can be formed. It is not always posible to move the conversation into a private room or office, but every attempt should be made to reduce the number of distractions that are present. In his book, The Skilled Helper (1998), Gerad Egan offers what he has labled the Micro Skills of Attending. The are very close to the infomation I have presented above from Bolton’s People Skills. He has developed the following acronym to help counseling students remeber these vital skills in communication. The listener has a specific responsibility in the course of communication. That is to stay out of the speakers way and to try and follow where he or she is leading. The goal of listening is not responding but understanding what is trying to be communicated. A door opener is a noncoercive inivitation to talk. Sometimes door openers are not necessay to â€Å"get the ball rolling†, but may be needed later in the conversation if the speaker does not seem to want to continue. Door openers don’t have to be verbal cues, a good listener can also use his or her body to send the signal â€Å"I am interested, you have my attention, please tell me more. The â€Å"four elements† of a door opener, as discussed, by Bolton are; (1) A discription of the other person’s body language (i. e. , you don’t look like you are feeling well today. ) (2) An invitation to talk (3) Silence (to give the other person time to decide if they want to talk and what they are going to say. ) (4) Attending (this inclueds all of the attending skills that are discused on the attending skills page. ) What on earth are â€Å"minimal encourages? † In the attempt to follow it is important not to become a nonparticipant in the conversation. Minimal encourages refers to the amount the listener speakes and the amount of direction the listener gives to the conversation, which should be very little. Sometimes encouragement is needed but the speaker needs to remain in control of the conversation. The same is true for questioning as is for encouraging. The problem is not questioning itself but the fact that most people do not do it well. Most people ask closed questions that only require specific and short answers such as â€Å"yes† and â€Å"no. † The trick is to ask open questions that are designed to spur the conversation on when it gets stuck. This means that questioning will be relatively infrequent. Finally, attentive silence is one of the most important elements in following the listener. We live in a culture in which silence is not comfortable. We often inturpert it as a cue that we need to jump in and say something. In fact, silence is an opportunity for the speaker to reflect on what he or she has said and to gather their thoughts before their next statment. What we say is not as important as giving the speaker the time he or she needs to clearly communicate their point. An important aspect of listening is to help the listner clarify his or her communication so that they can get their meaning across. To practice reflective listening is to serve as a mirror for the person speaking. One way that the speaker can do this is through paraphrasing. A paraphrase is a conscise response to the speaker that restates the essence of the communication in the listener’s own words. The paraphrase deals with facts or ideas and not the emotions. In this respect it focuses the content of the speakers message. Another aspect of reflecting is the mirroring back of the speaker’s emotions as they make their statments. It is important to tune into the speaker’s emotions. If we, as listeners, miss the feeling content we have missed a major part of the speaker’s reaction and experience. Reflecting feelings also give the speaker an opportunity to evaluate how he or she is responding to a problem situation. Not only should the listener reflect feeling, he or she also needs to reflect meaning. Content + feeling = meaning. Sounds simple, doesn’t it? But, if you get the feelings wrong or the content wrong then you can’t understand the speaker. Reflecting meaning alows you to be sure you are â€Å"getting† what the speaker is saying. Reflecting feeling and content are the baby steps to reflecting meaning. Meaning expression can use the basic empathic formula; you feel _______ because _________ , or some variation on this formla. After a while the formula will disaper and a natural empathic responding style will develop. Finally, there is the concept of sumative reflections. This reflective response is designed to recap the major themes of the conversation and comes after an extended period of the conversation. During the course of the conversation bits of useless information can acrue. The sumation can serve to help the speaker to sort through the litter and to construct a more complete and compact conceptualization of the issue being discussed.

Brief History of Shaheed Udham Singh Essay

Udham Singh, a revolutionary nationalist, was born Sher Singh on 26 December 1899, at Sunam, in the then princely state of Patiala. His father, Tahal Singh, was at that time working as a watchman on a railway crossing in the neighbouring village of Upall. Sher Singh lost his parents before he was seven years and was admitted along with his brother Mukta Singh to the Central Khalsa Orphanage at Amritsar on 24 October 1907. As both brothers were administered the Sikh initiatory rites at the Orphanage, they received new names, Sher Singh becoming Udham Singh and Mukta Singh Sadhu Singh. In 1917, Udham Singh’s brother also died, leaving him alone in the world. Udham Singh left the Orphanage after passing the matriculation examination in 1918. He was present in the Jallianvala Bag on the fateful Baisakhi day, 13 April 1919, when a peaceful assembly of people was fired upon by General Reginald Edward Harry Dyer, killing over one thousand people. The event which Udham Singh used to recall with anger and sorrow, turned him to the path of revolution. Soon after, he left India and went to the United States of America. He felt thrilled to learn about the militant activities of the Babar Akalis in the early 1920’s, and returned home. He had secretly brought with him some revolvers and was arrested by the police in Amritsar, and sentenced to four years imprisonment under the Arms Act. On release in 1931, he returned to his native Sunam, but harassed by the local police, he once again returned to Amritsar and opened a shop as a signboard painter, assuming the name of Ram Muhammad Singh Azad. This name, which he was to use later in England, wa s adopted to emphasize the unity of all the religious communities in India in their struggle for political freedom. Udham Singh was deeply influenced by the activities of Bhagat Singh and his revolutionary group. In 1935, when he was on a visit to Kashmlr, he was found carrying Bhagat Singh’s portrait. He invariably referred to him as his guru. He loved to sing political songs, and was very fond of Ram Prasad Bismal, who was the leading poet of the revolutionaries. After staying for some months in Kashmlr, Udham Singh left India. He wandered about the  continent for some time, and reached England by the mid-thirties. He was on the lookout for an opportunity to avenge the Jalliavala Bagh tragedy. The long-waited moment at last came on 13 March 1940. On that day, at 4.30 p.m. in the Caxton Hall, London, where a meeting of the East India Association was being held in conjunction with the Royal Central Asian Society, Udham Singh fired five to six shots from his pistol at Sir Michael O’Dwyer, who was governor of the Punjab when the Amritsar massacre had taken place. O’Dwyer was h it twice and fell to the ground dead and Lord Zetland, the Secretary of State for India, who was presiding over the meeting was injured. Udham Singh was overpowered with a smoking revolver. He in fact made no attempt to escape and continued saying that he had done his duty by his country. On 1 April 1940, Udham Singh was formally charged with the murder of Sir Michael O’Dwyer. On 4 June 1940, he was committed to trial, at the Central Criminal Court, Old Bailey, before Justice Atkinson, who sentenced him to death. An appeal was filed on his behalf which was dismissed on 15 July 1940. On 31 July 1940, Udham Singh was hanged in Pentonville Prison in London. Udham Singh was essentially a man of action and save his statement before the judge at his trial, there was no writing from his pen available to historians. Recently, letters written by him to Shiv Singh Jauhal during his days in prison after the shooting of Sir Michael O’Dwyer have been discovered and published. These letters show him as a man of great courage, with a sense of humour. He called himself a guest of His Majesty King George, and he looked upon death as a bride he was going to wed. By remaining cheerful to the last and going joyfully to the gallows, he followed the example of Bhagat Singh who had been his beau ideal. During the trial, Udham Singh had made a request that his ashes be sent back to his country, but this was not allowed. In 1975, however, the Government of India, at the instance of the Punjab Government, finally succeeded in bringing his ashes home. Lakhs of people gathered on the occasion to pay homage to his memory.

Evaluating The Waste Water Treatment Processes Environmental Sciences Essay

Domestic effluent intervention or sewerage intervention, is the procedure of taking contaminations from effluent and family sewerage, both overflow ( wastewaters ) and domestic. It includes physical, chemical, and biological procedures to take physical, chemical and biological contaminations. Its aim is to bring forth an environmentally-safe fluid waste watercourse ( or treated wastewater ) and a solid waste ( or treated sludge ) suitable for disposal or reuse ( normally as farm fertiliser ) . Using advanced engineering it is now possible to re-use sewerage wastewater for imbibing H2O, although Singapore is the lone state to implement such engineering on a production graduated table in its production of NEWater. 1.2 ORIGIN OF WASTE WATER Sewage is created by residential, institutional, and commercial and industrial constitutions and includes family waste liquid from lavatories, baths, showers, kitchens, sinks and so forth that is disposed of via cloacas. In many countries, sewerage besides includes liquid waste from industry and commercialism. The separation and draining of family waste into greywater and blackwater is going more common in the developed universe, with greywater being permitted to be used for irrigating workss or recycled for blushing lavatories. Sewage may include stormwater overflow. Sewage systems capable of managing stormwater are known as combined systems. Combined sewer systems are normally avoided now because precipitation causes widely changing flows cut downing sewerage intervention works efficiency. Combined cloacas require much larger, more expensive, intervention installations than healthful cloacas. Heavy storm overflow may overpower the sewerage intervention system, doing a spill or flood. Sanitary cloacas are typically much smaller than combined cloacas, and they are non designed to transport stormwater. Backups of natural sewerage can happen if inordinate Infiltration/Inflow is allowed into a healthful cloaca system. Modern sewered developments be given to be provided with separate storm drain systems for rainwater. As rainfall travels over roofs and the land, it may pick up assorted contaminations including dirt atoms and other deposit, heavy metals, organic compounds, carnal waste, and oil and lubricating oil. ( See urban overflow. ) Some legal powers require stormwater to have some degree of intervention before being discharged straight into waterways. Examples of intervention procedures used for stormwater include keeping basins, wetlands, buried vaults with assorted sorts of media filters, and vortex centrifuges ( to take harsh solids ) . Chapter TWO 2.1 OVERVIEW OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES Sewage can be treated near to where it is created, a decentralized system, ( in infected armored combat vehicles, biofilters or aerophilic intervention systems ) , or be collected and transported via a web of pipes and pump Stationss to a municipal intervention works, a centralized system, ( see sewage and pipes and substructure ) . Sewage aggregation and intervention is typically capable to local, province and federal ordinances and criterions. Industrial beginnings of effluent frequently require specialised intervention processes as shown in the diagram below: Procedure Flow Diagram for a typical intervention works via Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands ( SFCW ) Sewage intervention by and large involves three phases, called primary, secondary and third intervention. Primary intervention consists of temporarily keeping the sewerage in a quiescent basin where heavy solids can settle to the underside while oil, lubricating oil and lighter solids float to the surface. The settled and floating stuffs are removed and the staying liquid may be discharged or subjected to secondary intervention. Secondary intervention removes dissolved and suspended biological affair. Secondary intervention is typically performed by autochthonal, water-borne microorganisms in a managed home ground. Secondary intervention may necessitate a separation procedure to take the microorganisms from the treated H2O prior to dispatch or third intervention. Third intervention is sometimes defined as anything more than primary and secondary intervention in order to let rejection into a extremely sensitive or delicate ecosystem ( estuaries, low-flow rivers, coral reefs etc. ) . Treated H2O is sometimes disinfected chemically or physically ( for illustration, by lagunas and microfiltration ) prior to dispatch into a watercourse, river, bay, laguna or wetland, or it can be used for the irrigation of a golf class, green manner or park. If it is sufficiently clean, it can besides be used for groundwater recharge or agricultural intents. 2.2 PRE-TREATMENT Pre-treatment removes stuffs that can be easy collected from the natural waste H2O before they damage or clog the pumps and skimmers of primary intervention clarifiers ( rubbish, tree limbs, foliages, etc. ) . Screening The inflowing sewerage H2O is screened to take all big objects like tins, shreds, sticks, fictile packages etc. carried in the sewerage watercourse. This is most normally done with an automated automatically raked saloon screen in modern workss functioning big populations, whilst in smaller or less modern workss a manually cleaned screen may be used. The raking action of a mechanical saloon screen is typically paced harmonizing to the accretion on the saloon screens and/or flow rate. The solids are collected and subsequently disposed in a landfill or incinerated. Bar screens or mesh screens of changing sizes may be used to optimise solids remotion. If gross solids are non removed they become entrained in pipes and traveling parts of the intervention works and can do significant harm and inefficiency in the procedure. GRIT REMOVAL Pre-treatment may include a sand or grit channel or chamber where the speed of the entrance effluent is adjusted to let the colony of sand, grit, rocks, and broken glass. These atoms are removed because they may damage pumps and other equipment. For little healthful cloaca systems, the grit Chamberss may non be necessary, but grit remotion is desirable at larger workss. FAT AND GREASE REMOVAL In some larger workss, fat and lubricating oil is removed by go throughing the sewerage through a little armored combat vehicle where skimmers collect the fat natation on the surface. Air blowers in the base of the armored combat vehicle may besides be used to assist retrieve the fat as a foam. In most workss nevertheless, fat and lubricating oil remotion takes topographic point in the primary colony armored combat vehicle utilizing mechanical surface skimmers. 2.3 PRIMARY TREATMENT In the primary deposit phase, sewerage flows through big armored combat vehicles, normally called â€Å" primary clarifiers † or â€Å" primary deposit armored combat vehicles. † The armored combat vehicles are used to settle sludge while lubricating oil and oils rise to the surface and are skimmed off. Primary settling armored combat vehicles are normally equipped with automatically goaded scrapers that continually drive the gathered sludge towards a hopper in the base of the armored combat vehicle where it is pumped to sludge intervention installations. Grease and oil from the drifting stuff can sometimes be recovered for saponification. The dimensions of the armored combat vehicle should be designed to consequence remotion of a high per centum of the floatables and sludge. A typical deposit armored combat vehicle may take from 60 to 65 per centum of suspended solids, and from 30 to 35 per centum of biochemical O demand ( BOD ) from the sewerage. 2.4 SECONDARY TREATMENT Secondary intervention is designed to well degrade the biological content of the sewerage which are derived from human waste, nutrient waste, soaps and detergent. The bulk of municipal workss handle the settled sewerage spirits utilizing aerophilic biological procedures. To be effectual, the biology necessitate both O and nutrient to populate. The bacterium and Protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminations ( e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain C molecules, etc. ) and adhere much of the less soluble fractions into floc. Secondary intervention systems are classified as fixed-film or suspended-growth systems. Fixed-film or affiliated growing systems include dribbling filters and revolving biological contactors, where the biomass grows on media and the sewerage passes over its surface. Suspended-growth systems include activated sludge, where the biomass is assorted with the sewerage and can be operated in a smaller infinite than fixed-film systems that treat the same sum of H2O. However, fixed-film systems are more able to get by with drastic alterations in the sum of biological stuff and can supply higher remotion rates for organic stuff and suspended solids than suspended growing systems. [ 6 ] :11-13 Rough ining filters are intended to handle peculiarly strong or variable organic tonss, typically industrial, to let them to so be treated by conventional secondary intervention procedures. Features include filters filled with media to which effluent is applied. They are designed to let high hydraulic burden and a high degree of aeration. On larger installings, air is forced through the media utilizing blowers. The attendant effluent is normally within the normal scope for conventional intervention procedures. A generalised, conventional diagram of an activated sludge procedure. A filter removes a little per centum of the suspended organic affair, while the bulk of the organic affair undergoes a alteration of character, merely due to the biological oxidization and nitrification taking topographic point in the filter. With this aerophilic oxidization and nitrification, the organic solids are converted into coagulated suspended mass, which is heavier and bulkier, and can settle to the underside of a armored combat vehicle. The wastewater of the filter is hence passed through a deposit armored combat vehicle, called a secondary clarifier, secondary subsiding armored combat vehicle or humus armored combat vehicle. ACTIVATED SLUDGE In general, activated sludge workss encompass a assortment of mechanisms and procedures that use dissolved O to advance the growing of biological floc that well removes organic stuff. The procedure traps particulate stuff and can, under ideal conditions, convert ammonium hydroxide to nitrite and nitrate and finally to nitrogen gas. SURFACE-AERATED BASINS ( LAGOONS ) Many little municipal sewerage systems in the United States ( 1 million gal./day or less ) usage aerated lagunas. Most biological oxidization processes for handling industrial effluents have in common the usage of O ( or air ) and microbic action. Surface-aerated basins achieve 80 to 90 per centum remotion of BOD with keeping times of 1 to 10 yearss. The basins may run in deepness from 1.5 to 5.0 meters and utilize motor-driven aerators drifting on the surface of the effluent. In an aerated basin system, the aerators provide two maps: they transfer air into the basins required by the biological oxidization reactions, and they provide the commixture required for scattering the air and for reaching the reactants ( that is, O, effluent and bug ) . Typically, the drifting surface aerators are rated to present the sum of air tantamount to 1.8 to 2.7A kilograms O2/kWA ·h. However, they do non supply as good commixture as is usually achieved in activated sludge systems and hence aerated basins do non accomplish the same public presentation degree as activated sludge units. Biological oxidization procedures are sensitive to temperature and, between 0 A °C and 40 A °C, the rate of biological reactions increase with temperature. Most surface aerated vass operate at between 4 A °C and 32 A °C. CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS Constructed wetlands ( can either be surface flow or subsurface flow, horizontal or perpendicular flow ) , include engineered reedbeds and belong to the household of phytorestoration and ecotechnologies ; they provide a high grade of biological betterment and depending on design, act as a primary, secondary and sometimes third intervention, besides see phytoremediation. One illustration is a little reedbed used to clean the drainage from the elephants ‘ enclosure at Chester Zoo in England ; legion CWs are used to recycle the H2O of the metropolis of Honfleur in France and legion other towns in Europe, the US, Asia and Australia. They are known to be extremely productive systems as they copy natural wetlands, called the â€Å" Kidneys of the Earth † for their cardinal recycling capacity of the hydrological rhythm in the biosphere. Robust and dependable, their intervention capacities improve as clip spell by, at the antonym of conventional intervention workss whose machine ry age with clip. They are being progressively used, although equal and experient design are more cardinal than for other systems and infinite restriction may hinder their usage. FILTER BEDS ( OXIDIZING BEDS ) In older workss and those having variable burdens, dribbling filter beds are used where the settled sewerage spirits is spread onto the surface of a bed made up of coke ( carbonized coal ) , limestone french friess or specially fabricated fictile media. Such media must hold big surface countries to back up the biofilms that form. The spirits is typically distributed through perforated spray weaponries. The distributed spirits drips through the bed and is collected in drains at the base. These drains besides provide a beginning of air which percolates up through the bed, maintaining it aerophilic. Biological movies of bacteriums, Protozoa and fungi signifier on the media ‘s surfaces and eat or otherwise cut down the organic content. This biofilm is frequently grazed by insect larvae, snails, and worms which help keep an optimum thickness. Overloading of beds increases the thickness of the movie taking to clogging of the filter media and ponding on the surface. SOIL BIO-TECHNOLOGY A new procedure called Soil Bio-Technology ( SBT ) developed at IIT Bombay has shown enormous betterments in procedure efficiency enabling entire H2O reuse, due to highly low runing power demands of less than 50 Js per kilogram of treated H2O. Typically SBT systems can accomplish chemical O demand ( COD ) degrees less than 10A mg/L from sewerage input of COD 400A mg/L. SBT workss exhibit high decreases in COD values and bacterial counts as a consequence of the really high microbic densenesss available in the media. Unlike conventional intervention workss, SBT workss produce undistinguished sums of sludge, preventing the demand for sludge disposal countries that are required by other engineerings. BIOLOGICAL AERATED FILTERS Biological Aerated ( or Anoxic ) Filter ( BAF ) or Biofilters combine filtration with biological C decrease, nitrification or denitrification. BAF normally includes a reactor filled with a filter media. The media is either in suspension or supported by a crushed rock bed at the pes of the filter. The double intent of this media is to back up extremely active biomass that is attached to it and to filtrate suspended solids. Carbon decrease and ammonium hydroxide transition occurs in aerophilic manner and sometime achieved in a individual reactor while nitrate transition occurs in anoxic manner. BAF is operated either in upflow or downflow constellation depending on design specified by maker. Conventional diagram of a typical revolving biological contactor ( RBC ) . The treated wastewater clarifier/settler is non included in the diagram. ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORS Revolving biological contactors ( RBCs ) are mechanical secondary intervention systems, which are robust and capable of defying rushs in organic burden. RBCs were foremost installed in Germany in 1960 and have since been developed and refined into a dependable operating unit. The revolving discs back up the growing of bacteriums and micro-organisms nowadays in the sewerage, which break down and brace organic pollutants. To be successful, micro-organisms need both O to populate and nutrient to turn. Oxygen is obtained from the ambiance as the discs rotate. As the micro-organisms grow, they build up on the media until they are sloughed off due to shear forces provided by the revolving phonograph record in the sewerage. Effluent from the RBC is so passed through concluding clarifiers where the microorganisms in suspension settee as a sludge. The sludge is withdrawn from the clarifier for farther intervention. A functionally similar biological filtering system has become popular as portion of place fish tank filtration and purification. The fish tank H2O is drawn up out of the armored combat vehicle and so cascaded over a freely whirling corrugated fiber-mesh wheel before go throughing through a media filter and back into the fish tank. The whirling mesh wheel develops a biofilm coating of micro-organisms that feed on the suspended wastes in the fish tank H2O and are besides exposed to the ambiance as the wheel rotates. This is particularly good at taking waste. MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS Membrane bioreactors ( MBR ) combine activated sludge intervention with a membrane liquid-solid separation procedure. The membrane constituent uses low force per unit area microfiltration or extremist filtration membranes and eliminates the demand for elucidation and third filtration. The membranes are typically immersed in the aeration armored combat vehicle ; nevertheless, some applications utilize a separate membrane armored combat vehicle. One of the cardinal benefits of an MBR system is that it efficaciously overcomes the restrictions associated with hapless subsiding of sludge in conventional activated sludge ( CAS ) processes. The engineering permits bioreactor operation with well higher assorted spirits suspended solids ( MLSS ) concentration than CAS systems, which are limited by sludge subsiding. The procedure is typically operated at MLSS in the scope of 8,000-12,000A mg/L, while CAS are operated in the scope of 2,000-3,000A mg/L. The elevated biomass concentration in the MBR procedure allows for really effectual remotion of both soluble and particulate biodegradable stuffs at higher burden rates. Therefore increased sludge keeping times, normally transcending 15 yearss, guarantee complete nitrification even in highly cold conditions. SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION The concluding measure in the secondary intervention phase is to settle out the biological floc or filter stuff through a secondary clarifier and to bring forth sewage H2O incorporating low degrees of organic stuff and suspended affair. TERTIARY TREATMENT The intent of third intervention is to supply a concluding intervention phase to raise the outflowing quality before it is discharged to the receiving environment ( sea, river, lake, land, etc. ) . More than one third intervention procedure may be used at any intervention works. If disinfection is practiced, it is ever the concluding procedure. It is besides called â€Å" outflowing shining. † Filtration Sand filtration removes much of the residuary suspended affair. Filtration over activated C, besides called C surface assimilation, removes residuary toxins. LAGOONING Lagooning provides colony and farther biological betterment through storage in big semisynthetic pools or lagunas. These lagunas are extremely aerophilic and colonisation by native macrophytes, particularly reeds, is frequently encouraged. Small filter feeding invertebrates such as Daphnia and species of Rotifera greatly assist in intervention by taking all right particulates. NUTRIENT REMOVAL Effluent may incorporate high degrees of the foods N and P. Excessive release to the environment can take to a physique up of foods, called eutrophication, which can in bend encourage the giantism of weeds, algae, and blue-green algaes ( bluish green algae ) . This may do an algal bloom, a rapid growing in the population of algae. The algae Numberss are unsustainable and finally most of them die. The decomposition of the algae by bacteriums uses up so much of O in the H2O that most or all of the animate beings die, which creates more organic affair for the bacteriums to break up. In add-on to doing deoxygenation, some algal species produce toxins that contaminate imbibing H2O supplies. Different intervention procedures are required to take N and P. NITROGEN REMOVAL The remotion of N is effected through the biological oxidization of N from ammonium hydroxide to nitrate ( nitrification ) , followed by denitrification, the decrease of nitrate to nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas is released to the ambiance and therefore removed from the H2O. Nitrification itself is a two-step aerophilic procedure, each measure facilitated by a different type of bacteriums. The oxidization of ammonium hydroxide ( NH3 ) to nitrite ( NO2a?’ ) is most frequently facilitated by Nitrosomonas spp. ( nitroso mentioning to the formation of a nitroso functional group ) . Nitrite oxidization to nitrate ( NO3a?’ ) , though traditionally believed to be facilitated by Nitrobacter spp. ( nitro mentioning the formation of a nitro functional group ) , is now known to be facilitated in the environment about entirely by Nitrospira spp. Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to promote the appropriate biological communities to organize. It is facilitated by a broad diverseness of bacteriums. Sand filters, lagooning and reed beds can all be used to cut down N, but the activated sludge procedure ( if designed good ) can make the occupation the most easy. Since denitrification is the decrease of nitrate to dinitrogen gas, an negatron giver is needed. This can be, depending on the effluent, organic affair ( from fecal matters ) , sulfide, or an added giver like methyl alcohol. PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL Phosphorus remotion is of import as it is a confining food for algae growing in many fresh H2O systems. ( For a description of the negative effects of algae, see Nutrient remotion ) . It is besides peculiarly of import for H2O reuse systems where high P concentrations may take to fouling of downstream equipment such as rearward osmosis. Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a procedure called enhanced biological P remotion. In this procedure, specific bacterium, called polyphosphate roll uping beings ( PAOs ) , are selectively enriched and roll up big measures of P within their cells ( up to 20 per centum of their mass ) . When the biomass enriched in these bacteriums is separated from the treated H2O, these biosolids have a high fertiliser value. Phosphorus remotion can besides be achieved by chemical precipitation, normally with salts of Fe ( e.g. ferrous chloride ) , aluminium ( e.g. alum ) , or lime. This may take to inordinate sludge production as hydrated oxides precipitates and the added chemicals can be expensive. Chemical P remotion requires significantly smaller equipment footmark than biological remotion, is easier to run and is frequently more dependable than biological P removalA . Another method for P remotion is to utilize farinaceous laterite. Once removed, P, in the signifier of a phosphate-rich sludge, may be stored in a land fill or resold for usage in fertiliser. Disinfection The intent of disinfection in the intervention of waste H2O is to well cut down the figure of micro-organisms in the H2O to be discharged back into the environment. The effectivity of disinfection depends on the quality of the H2O being treated ( e.g. , cloud cover, pH, etc. ) , the type of disinfection being used, the bactericidal dose ( concentration and clip ) , and other environmental variables. Cloudy H2O will be treated less successfully, since solid affair can screen organisms, particularly from ultraviolet visible radiation or if contact times are low. By and large, short contact times, low doses and high flows all militate against effectual disinfection. Common methods of disinfection include ozone, Cl, ultraviolet visible radiation, or Na hypochlorite. Chloramine, which is used for imbibing H2O, is non used in waste H2O intervention because of its continuity. Chlorination remains the most common signifier of waste H2O disinfection in North America due to its low cost and long-run history of effectivity. One disadvantage is that chlorination of residuary organic stuff can bring forth chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic or harmful to the environment. Residual Cl or chloramines may besides be capable of chlorinating organic stuff in the natural aquatic environment. Further, because residuary Cl is toxic to aquatic species, the treated wastewater must besides be chemically dechlorinated, adding to the complexness and cost of intervention. Ultraviolet ( UV ) light can be used alternatively of Cl, I, or other chemicals. Because no chemicals are used, the treated H2O has no inauspicious consequence on beings that subsequently devour it, as may be the instance with other methods. UV radiation causes harm to the familial construction of bacteriums, viruses, and other pathogens, doing them incapable of reproduction. The cardinal disadvantages of UV disinfection are the demand for frequent lamp care and replacing and the demand for a extremely treated wastewater to guarantee that the mark micro-organisms are non shielded from the UV radiation ( i.e. , any solids nowadays in the treated wastewater may protect micro-organisms from the UV visible radiation ) . In the United Kingdom, UV visible radiation is going the most common agencies of disinfection because of the concerns about the impacts of Cl in chlorinating residuary organics in the effluent and in chlorinating organics in the receiving H2O. Some sewerage intervention s ystems in Canada and the US besides use UV visible radiation for their outflowing H2O disinfection. Ozone ( O3 ) is generated by go throughing O ( O2 ) through a high electromotive force possible resulting in a 3rd O atom going attached and organizing O3. Ozone is really unstable and reactive and oxidizes most organic stuff it comes in contact with, thereby destructing many infective micro-organisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than Cl because, unlike Cl which has to be stored on site ( extremely toxicant in the event of an inadvertent release ) , ozone is generated onsite as needed. Ozonation besides produces fewer disinfection byproducts than chlorination. A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone coevals equipment and the demands for particular operators. ODOUR CONTROL Smells emitted by sewerage intervention are typically an indicant of an anaerobic or â€Å" infected † status. Early phases of processing will be given to bring forth fetid gases, with H sulphide being most common in bring forthing ailments. Large procedure workss in urban countries will frequently handle the smells with C reactors, a contact media with bio-slimes, little doses of Cl, or go arounding fluids to biologically capture and metabolise the objectionable gases. Other methods of odour control exist, including add-on of Fe salts, H peroxide, Ca nitrate, etc. to pull off H sulphide degrees. Package Plants AND BATCH REACTORS To utilize less infinite, dainty hard waste and intermittent flows, a figure of designs of intercrossed intervention workss have been produced. Such workss frequently combine at least two phases of the three chief intervention phases into one combined phase. In the UK, where a big figure of effluent intervention workss serve little populations, bundle workss are a feasible option to constructing a big construction for each procedure phase. In the US, bundle workss are typically used in rural countries, main road remainder Michigans and dawdler Parkss. One type of system that combines secondary intervention and colony is the sequencing batch reactor ( SBR ) . Typically, activated sludge is assorted with natural entrance sewerage, and so assorted and aerated. The settled sludge is run away and re-aerated before a proportion is returned to the headworks. SBR workss are now being deployed in many parts of the universe. The disadvantage of the SBR procedure is that it requires a precise control of timing, blending and aeration. This preciseness is typically achieved with computing machine controls linked to detectors. Such a complex, delicate system is unsuited to topographic points where controls may be undependable, ill maintained, or where the power supply may be intermittent. Extended aeration bundle workss use separate basins for aeration and subsiding, and are slightly larger than SBR workss with decreased timing sensitiveness. Package workss may be referred to every bit high charged or low charged. This refers to the manner the biological burden is processed. In high charged systems, the biological phase is presented with a high organic burden and the combined floc and organic stuff is so oxygenated for a few hours before being charged once more with a new burden. In the low charged system the biological phase contains a low organic burden and is combined with flocculate for longer times. SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL The sludges accumulated in a effluent intervention procedure must be treated and disposed of in a safe and effectual mode. The intent of digestion is to cut down the sum of organic affair and the figure of disease-causing micro-organisms present in the solids. The most common intervention options include anaerobiotic digestion, aerophilic digestion, and composting. Incineration is besides used albeit to a much lesser grade. Sludge intervention depends on the sum of solids generated and other site-specific conditions. Composting is most frequently applied to small-scale workss with aerophilic digestion for mid sized operations, and anaerobiotic digestion for the larger-scale operations. ANAEROBIC DIGESTION Anaerobic digestion is a bacterial procedure that is carried out in the absence of O. The procedure can either be thermophilic digestion, in which sludge is fermented in armored combat vehicles at a temperature of 55A °C, or mesophilic, at a temperature of around 36A °C. Though leting shorter keeping clip ( and therefore smaller armored combat vehicles ) , thermophilic digestion is more expensive in footings of energy ingestion for heating the sludge. Anaerobic digestion is the most common ( mesophilic ) intervention of domestic sewerage in infected armored combat vehicles, which usually retain the sewerage from one twenty-four hours to two yearss, cut downing the BOD by approximately 35 to 40 per centum. This decrease can be increased with a combination of anaerobiotic and aerophilic intervention by put ining Aerobic Treatment Units ( ATUs ) in the infected armored combat vehicle. One major characteristic of anaerobiotic digestion is the production of biogas ( with the most utile constituent being methane ) , which can be used in generators for electricity production and/or in boilers for warming intents. AEROBIC DIGESTION Aerobic digestion is a bacterial procedure happening in the presence of O. Under aerophilic conditions, bacteriums quickly consume organic affair and change over it into C dioxide. The operating costs used to be characteristically much greater for aerophilic digestion because of the energy used by the blowers, pumps and motors needed to add O to the procedure. Aerobic digestion can besides be achieved by utilizing diffuser systems or jet aerators to oxidise the sludge. COMPOSTING Composting is besides an aerophilic procedure that involves blending the sludge with beginnings of C such as sawdust, straw or wood french friess. In the presence of O, bacterium digest both the effluent solids and the added C beginning and, in making so, produce a big sum of heat. Incineration Incineration of sludge is less common because of air emanations concerns and the auxiliary fuel ( typically natural gases or fuel oil ) required to fire the low calorific value sludge and zap residuary H2O. Stepped multiple fireplace incinerators with high abode clip and fluidized bed incinerators are the most common systems used to burn effluent sludge. Co-firing in municipal waste-to-energy workss is on occasion done, this option being less expensive presuming the installations already exist for solid waste and there is no demand for subsidiary fuel. Chapter THREE TERTIARY TREATMENT 3.1 SLUDGE DISPOSAL When a liquid sludge is produced, farther intervention may be required to do it suited for concluding disposal. Typically, sludges are thickened ( dewatered ) to cut down the volumes transported off-site for disposal. There is no procedure which wholly eliminates the demand to dispose of biosolids. There is, nevertheless, an extra measure some metropoliss are taking to superheat sludge and change over it into little pelletized granules that are high in N and other organic stuffs. In New York City, for illustration, several sewerage intervention workss have dewatering installations that use big extractors along with the add-on of chemicals such as polymer to farther take liquid from the sludge. The removed fluid, called centrate, is typically reintroduced into the effluent procedure. The merchandise which is left is called â€Å" bar † and that is picked up by companies which turn it into fertilizer pellets. This merchandise is so sold to local husbandmans and sod farms as a di rt amendment or fertiliser, cut downing the sum of infinite required to dispose of sludge in landfills. Much sludge arising from commercial or industrial countries is contaminated with toxic stuffs that are released into the cloacas from the industrial procedures. Elevated concentrations of such stuffs may do the sludge unsuitable for agricultural usage and it may so hold to be incinerated or disposed of to landfill. 3.2 TREATMENT IN THE RECEIVING ENVIRONMENT Many procedures in a effluent intervention works are designed to mime the natural intervention processes that occur in the environment, whether that environment is a natural H2O organic structure or the land. If non overloaded, bacteriums in the environment will devour organic contaminations, although this will cut down the degrees of O in the H2O and may significantly alter the overall ecology of the receiving H2O. Native bacterial populations feed on the organic contaminations, and the Numberss of disease-causing micro-organisms are reduced by natural environmental conditions such as predation or exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, in instances where the receiving environment provides a high degree of dilution, a high grade of effluent intervention may non be required. However, recent grounds has demonstrated that really low degrees of specific contaminations in effluent, including endocrines ( from animate being farming and residue from human hormonal contraceptive me thod methods ) and man-made stuffs such as phthalates that mimic endocrines in their action, can hold an unpredictable inauspicious impact on the natural biology and potentially on worlds if the H2O is re-used for imbibing H2O. [ 21 ] In the US and EU, uncontrolled discharges of effluent to the environment are non permitted under jurisprudence, and rigorous H2O quality demands are to be met. ( For demands in the US, see Clean Water Act. ) A important menace in the coming decennaries will be the increasing uncontrolled discharges of effluent within quickly developing states. 3.3 SEWAGE TREATMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Few dependable figures on the portion of the effluent collected in cloacas that is being treated in the universe exist. In many developing states the majority of domestic and industrial effluent is discharged without any intervention or after primary intervention merely. In Latin America about 15 % of gathered effluent base on ballss through intervention workss ( with varying degrees of existent intervention ) . In Venezuela, a below mean state in South America with regard to wastewater intervention, 97 per centum of the state ‘s sewerage is discharged natural into the environment. In a comparatively developed Middle Eastern state such as Iran, Tehran ‘s bulk of population has wholly untreated sewerage injected to the metropolis ‘s groundwater. However now the building of major parts of the sewerage system, aggregation and intervention, in Tehran is about complete, and under development, due to be to the full completed by the terminal of 2012. In Israel, approximately 50 per centum of agricultural H2O use ( entire usage was 1 billion three-dimensional meters in 2008 ) is provided through reclaimed cloaca H2O. Future programs call for increased usage of treated cloaca H2O every bit good as more desalinization workss.